The simulation of the dynamics and the microphysics of clouds observed during the Large-Scale Biosphere–Atmosphere Experiment in Amazonia—Smoke, Aerosols, Clouds, Rainfall, and Climate (LBA–SMOCC) campaign, as well as extremely continental and extremely maritime clouds, is performed using an updated version of the Hebrew University spectral microphysics cloud model (HUCM). A new scheme of diffusional growth allows the reproduction of in situ–measured droplet size distributions including those formed in extremely polluted air. It was shown that pyroclouds forming over the forest fires can precipitate. Several mechanisms leading to formation of precipitation from pyroclouds are considered. The mechanisms by which aerosols affect the microphysics and precipitation of warm cloud-base clouds have been investigated by analyzing the mass, heat, and moisture budgets. The increase in aerosol concentration increases both the generation and the loss of the condensate mass. In the clouds developing in dry air, the increase in the loss is dominant, which suggests a decrease in the accumulated precipitation with the aerosol concentration increase. On the contrary, an increase in aerosol concentration in deep maritime clouds leads to an increase in precipitation. The precipitation efficiency of clouds in polluted air is found to be several times lower than that of clouds forming in clean air. A classification of the results of aerosol effects on precipitation from clouds of different types developing in the atmosphere with high freezing level (about 4 km) is proposed. The role of air humidity and other factors in precipitation’s response to aerosols is discussed. The analysis shows that many discrepancies between the results reported in different observational and numerical studies can be attributed to the different atmospheric conditions and cloud types analyzed.

Polarimetric radar observations of deep convective storms frequently reveal columnar enhancements of differential reflectivity Z DR . Such ''Z DR columns'' can extend upward more than 3 km above the environmental 08C level, indicative of supercooled liquid drops being lofted by the updraft. Previous observational and modeling studies of Z DR columns are reviewed. To address remaining questions, the Hebrew University Cloud Model, an advanced spectral bin microphysical model, is coupled with a polarimetric radar operator to simulate the formation and life cycle of Z DR columns in a deep convective continental storm. In doing so, the mechanisms by which Z DR columns are produced are clarified, including the formation of large raindrops in the updraft by recirculation of smaller raindrops formed aloft back into the updraft at low levels. The internal hydrometeor structure of Z DR columns is quantified, revealing the transition from supercooled liquid drops to freezing drops to hail with height in the Z DR column. The life cycle of Z DR columns from early formation, through growth to maturity, to demise is described, showing how hail falling out through the weakening or ascending updraft bubble dominates the reflectivity factor Z H , causing the death of the Z DR column and leaving behind its ''ghost'' of supercooled drops. In addition, the practical applications of Z DR columns and their evolution are explored. The height of the Z DR column is correlated with updraft strength, and the evolution of Z DR column height is correlated with increases in Z H and hail mass content at the ground after a lag of 10-15 min.

Some observational evidence—such as bimodal drop size distributions, comparatively high concentrations of supercooled drops at upper levels, high concentrations of small ice crystals in cloud anvils leading to high optical depth, and lightning in the eyewalls of hurricanes—indicates that the traditional view of the microphysics of deep tropical maritime clouds requires, possibly, some revisions. In the present study it is shown that the observed phenomena listed above can be attributed to the presence of small cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) with diameters less than about 0.05 μm. An increase in vertical velocity above cloud base can lead to an increase in supersaturation and to activation of the smallest CCN, resulting in production of new droplets several kilometers above the cloud base. A significant increase in supersaturation can be also caused by a decrease in droplet concentration during intense warm rain formation accompanied by an intense vertical velocity. This increase in supersaturation also can trigger in-cloud nucleation and formation of small droplets. Another reason for an increase in supersaturation and in-cloud nucleation can be riming, resulting in a decrease in droplet concentration. It has been shown that successive growth of new nucleated droplets increases supercooled water content and leads to significant ice crystal concentrations aloft. The analysis of the synergetic effect of the smallest CCN and giant CCN on production of supercooled water and ice crystals in cloud anvils allows reconsideration of the role of giant CCN. Significant effects of small aerosols on precipitation and cloud updrafts have been found. The possible role of these small aerosols as well as small aerosols with combination of giant CCN in creating conditions favorable for lightning in deep maritime clouds is discussed.

[1] The spectral bin microphysics Hebrew University cloud model with the spatial resolution of 50 Â 50 m is used to simulate the evolution of isolated deep mixed phase convective clouds under different meteorological conditions and at different aerosol concentrations. The model takes into account the effects of turbulence on droplet collision rate. Turbulent collision kernels are calculated at each time step and at each grid point. The turbulence-induced collision rate enhancement is determined by means of lookup tables calculated in the recent studies for different values of turbulent dissipation rate and the Taylor microscale Reynolds numbers. Deep convective clouds observed during the Large-Scale Biosphere-Atmosphere Experiment in Amazonia-Smoke, Aerosols, Clouds, Rainfall and Climate campaign in the Amazon region are simulated at different aerosol concentrations. Turbulence intensity in the simulated clouds is spatially inhomogeneous and reaches its maximum at the tops of multiple bubbles forming the clouds. It is shown that polluted clouds are more turbulent than those developing in the clean atmosphere. An agreement of the calculated droplet size distributions with those measured in situ is demonstrated. It is shown that turbulence accelerates formation of raindrops, especially in polluted clouds. At the same time, turbulence-induced collision enhancement lessens the amount of ice and leads to a decrease in the net accumulated rain from mixed-phase clouds. To a certain degree the effects of turbulence on precipitation counteract the aerosol effects. Since no turbulence effects on collisions of drops larger than 22 mm in radius as well as on drop ice and ice collisions are considered in this study, and taking into account that a 2-D model geometry is used, the results of the study should be considered as preliminary. Additional numerical and theoretical investigations are required to quantify the turbulent effects.Citation: Benmoshe, N., M. Pinsky, A. Pokrovsky, and A. Khain (2012), Turbulent effects on the microphysics and initiation of warm rain in deep convective clouds: 2-D simulations by a spectral mixed-phase microphysics cloud model,

[1] The formation of first raindrops in deep convective clouds is investigated. A combination of observational data analysis and 2D and 3D simulations of deep convective clouds suggests that the first raindrops form at the top of undiluted or slightly diluted cores. It is shown that droplet size distributions in these regions are wider and contain more large droplets than in diluted volumes. The results of the study suggest that the initial raindrop formation is determined by the basic microphysical processes within ascending adiabatic volumes. It allows one to predict the height of the formation of first raindrops considering the processes of cloud condensation nuclei activation, droplet diffusion growth, and coalescence growth. The results obtained in the study explain observational results through which the in-cloud height of first raindrop formation depends linearly on the droplet number concentration at cloud base. The results also explain why a simple adiabatic parcel model can reproduce this dependence. The present study provides a physical basis for retrieval algorithms of cloud microphysical properties and aerosol properties using satellites. The study indicates that the role of mixing and entrainment in the formation of the first raindrops is not of crucial importance. It is also shown that low variability of effective and mean volume radii along horizontal traverses, as regularly observed by in situ measurements, can be simulated by high-resolution cloud models in which mixing is parameterized by a traditional 1.5 order turbulence closure scheme.