Recent research shows that instructors commonly use politeness strategies to achieve affective scaffolding in educational contexts. The importance of affective factors such as self-confidence and interest that contribute to learner motivation is well recognized. In this paper, we describe the results of a Wizard-of-Oz experiment to study the effect of politeness strategies on both cognitive and motivational factors. We compare the results of two different politeness strategies, direct and polite, in assisting seventeen students in a computer-based learning task. We find that politeness can affect students' motivational state and help students learn difficult concepts. The results of the experiment provide a basis for the design of a polite pedagogical agent and its tutorial intervention strategies.
In this paper, we describe a method for pedagogical agents to choose when to interact with learners in interactive learning environments. This method is based on observations of human tutors coaching students in on-line learning tasks. It takes into account the focus of attention of the learner, the learner's current task, and expected time required to perform the task. A Bayesian network model combines evidence from eye gaze and interface actions to infer learner focus of attention. The attention model is combined with a plan recognizer to detect different types of learner difficulties such as confusion and indecision which warrant intervention. We plan to incorporate this capability into a pedagogical agent able to interact with learners in socially appropriate ways.
The remarkable phenomenon of nestmate killing behavior among some birds that are obligate brood parasites (OBP) has fascinated scientific researchers for hundreds of years. This ''nestmate-cide'' behavior has been found in two clades of OBP birds (most OBP cuckoos and all the parasitic honeyguides), though it is absent in parasitic Clamator cuckoos, viduid finches, cowbirds, and the single parasitic duck. Several hypotheses have been developed to explain the existence of nestmate toleraters, including recent acquisition of OBP and insufficient time to evolve nestmate killing behavior, parasitizing a host with a brood reducers strategy, or the occurrence of high costs for killing nestmates. However, none of these hypotheses have provided a complete explanation for the origin of chick killing behavior in OBP birds and its ''fixed'' distribution pattern within certain clades. There are similarities in the process and consequences of nestmate killing behavior in obligate brood parasites with that of obligate siblicidal behavior. After mapping these two behaviors on recent avian phylogenies, we found that the two clades of brood parasites that exhibit nestmate killing behavior are both within larger clades that contain species with obligate siblicidal behavior. Since no previous studies have considered the potential linkage between obligate siblicidal behavior and parasitic chick killing behavior, we proposed that the evolution of the potential for siblicide may also result in the potential for parasitic chicks to kill nestmates, and that siblicidal behavior may even promote the origin of this ''killing-type'' OBP. Keywords Obligate brood parasitism Á Nestmate killing behavior Á Nestmate tolerance Á Obligate siblicidal behavior Zusammenfassung Das Töten von Mitnestlingen obligat brutparasitischer Vögel: Besteht ein Zusammenhang mit obligatem Geschwistermordverhalten? Für Jahrhunderte hat Wissenschaftler das bemerkenswerte Phänomen fasziniert, dass manche, obligat brutparasitische (OBP) Vogelarten ihre Mitnestlinge töten. Dieses ,,Mitnestlingszid''-Verhalten wurde für zwei Zweige OBP Vögel nachgewiesen (die meisten OBP Kuckucke und alle parasitischen Honiganzeiger), findet sich allerdings nicht in parasitischen Kuckucken der Gattung Clamator, Finken aus der Familie Viduidae, Kuhstärlingen und der einzigen parasitischen Entenart. Zur Erklärung der Existenz von Brutparasiten, die ihre Mitnestlinge tolerieren, wurden mehrere Hypothesen aufgestellt, unter anderem die kürz-liche Entstehung von OBP und die damit fehlende Zeit Mitnestlingsrmord zu evolvieren, einen Wirt mit Brutreduziererstrategie zu parasitieren, oder hohe Kosten für den Geschwistermord. Dennoch konnte keine dieser Hypothesen eine vollständige Erklärung für die Entstehung des Verhaltens von OBP Vögeln Mit-Nestlinge zu töten und dessen ,,fixierten'' Verteilungsmusters innerhalb bestimmter Zweige liefern. Es gibt allerdings Ä hnlichkeiten Communicated by T. Friedl.
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