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Participatory guarantee systems (PGS) have become increasingly important for organic quality assurance. PGS are promoted as more suitable than third-party certification (TPC) for smallholder farmers in the Global South. The advocated benefits of PGS include the promotion of organic agriculture, farmer empowerment, and the facilitation of food system sustainability. To deliver these benefits, local actor participation is key. To date, there is still an absence of in-depth studies on participation in PGS in the literature. The aim of this study was to contribute to closing this research gap by (i) conducting a meta-analysis on PGS participation and (ii) presenting a framework for studying actor participation in PGS. A systematic literature review on participation in PGS was carried out, using a framework based on Cohen and Uphoff (1980). The results showed that data on participation in PGS are still fragmented in scientific literature. Quantitative empirical evidence and data on the extent and purpose of participation and actors’ perception of participation, for example, are very scarce or not available at all. This paper argues that a systematic and theory-based approach to further research on participation in PGS is needed for improved understanding and facilitation, and suggests an adapted version of Cohen and Uphoff’s (1980) framework for conducting this research.

The importance of Participatory Guarantee Systems (PGS) as an alternative organic certification to third-party certification (TPC) has grown remarkably in recent years. PGS are argued to be less costly than TPC, and adopt the exchange of advice and knowledge as a key element of farm inspections. For these reasons, PGS are promoted as being more accessible for smallholder farmers in low-income countries and as a tool for supporting organic conversion and standard compliance, and ultimately contributing to food system sustainability. PGS certification costs have not yet been studied thoroughly and empirical studies on PGS farm inspections are rare. This paper applies a mixed-methods case study approach in a Costa Rican PGS initiative and explores explicit and implicit PGS certification costs and PGS farm inspections. The framework for assessing actor participation in PGS and transaction cost theory were used as the theoretical foundation. Semi-structured interviews (n = 10), PGS member surveys (n = 17), and participant observations of PGS farm inspections (n = 11) were conducted and complemented with data from internal documents and informal interviews. The results showed that reduced explicit costs for PGS certification were accompanied by substantial implicit costs in terms of the time dedicated to the PGS certification process. These implicit costs were largely attributed to the legal requirements for PGS, and were borne by only a few members, resulting in differences in total certification costs between PGS members. Despite legal formalization, information exchange was an important part of PGS farm inspections. Against the backdrop of small audit teams and low participation in farm inspections, PGS members implementing farm inspections nurtured transparency and an exchange of experience within the PGS. The study provides novel insight into PGS, and defines cost components and PGS characteristics affecting PGS certification costs that may also be relevant to other PGS initiatives and related fields of action.

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Alternative food networks (AFN) are argued to provide platforms to re-socialize and re-spacealize food, establish and contribute to democratic participation in local food chains, and foster producer–consumer relations and trust. As one of the most recent examples of AFN, Participatory Guarantee Systems (PGS) have gained notable traction in attempting to redefine consumer-producer relations in the organic value chain. The participation of stakeholders, such as consumers, has been a key element theoretically differentiating PGS from other organic verification systems. While research on farmer participation in PGS is attracting interest, consumer participation is still widely overlooked. Using a mixed methods approach, this paper describes five PGS markets in Mexico, Chile and Bolivia. A survey was conducted with consumers in the PGS markets to explore their awareness of the PGS, how consumers participate in the PGS, and their level of trust in the respective PGS and its certified products. Results showed a low level of awareness of PGS among market consumers, few participation possibilities, and minimal consumer participation overall. Nevertheless, trust in organic quality was generally high. Consumers primarily relied on the direct relationship with producers and the PGS market itself as sources of trust. These results provide novel insight into PGS consumer-market interactions, and contribute to discussions concerning social embeddedness, awareness and participation within AFN.