Declines in insect pollinators across Europe have raised concerns about the supply of pollination services to agriculture. Simultaneously, EU agricultural and biofuel policies have encouraged substantial growth in the cultivated area of insect pollinated crops across the continent. Using data from 41 European countries, this study demonstrates that the recommended number of honeybees required to provide crop pollination across Europe has risen 4.9 times as fast as honeybee stocks between 2005 and 2010. Consequently, honeybee stocks were insufficient to supply >90% of demands in 22 countries studied. These findings raise concerns about the capacity of many countries to cope with major losses of wild pollinators and highlight numerous critical gaps in current understanding of pollination service supplies and demands, pointing to a pressing need for further research into this issue.

Summary 1.We compared the foraging behaviour of two small (approximately 6000 bees) and two large (approximately 20 000 bees) honey-bee colonies over 6 days. We determined where the bees of each colony foraged, whether they collected nectar or pollen, the number of patches foraged at, the number of bees engaged in foraging, and the concentration of the nectar collected. 2. Even though the colonies were located in the same environment and had the same genetic background, foragers from different colonies used different forage patches. 3. Small and large colonies foraged at a similar distance in July when forage was abundant (mean foraging distance for small and large colonies was 0·67 and 0·62 km, respectively) whereas the large colonies foraged significantly further in August when forage was scarce (mean foraging distance for small and large colonies was 1·43 and 2·85 km, respectively). 4. Small colonies foraged at approximately the same number of patches as large colonies. The total number of foragers returning to the small colonies per minute was significantly lower than the number of foragers returning to the large colonies. This means that, relative to their size, small colonies foraged at more patches than large colonies. 5. The quality of the nectar collected by foragers of the small and large colonies did not differ. However, small colonies did collect more pollen than large colonies.

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The observed resistance increase was associated with spinosad applications in the respective areas. These values are relatively low and do not yet pose a serious control problem in the field. However, the observed variation documents that spinosad tolerance has increased in areas where the insecticide has been more extensively used.

The olive fruit fly Bactrocera oleae (Gmelin) (Diptera: Tephritidae) is the most important pest of olives in countries around the Mediterranean basin. Its control has been based mostly on bait sprays with organophosphate insecticides (usually dimethoate or fenthion) for about 40 years. In the present study, the resistance status of olive fruit fly populations to dimethoate was examined in Greece and Cyprus over 2 years. Thirty-one populations from various regions of Greece, nine from Cyprus and one laboratory susceptible strain, which served as a control, were assayed by topical application of dimethoate. Considerable variation in the resistance levels to dimethoate was recorded in the populations of B. oleae, with resistance ratios ranging from 6.3 to 64.4 (ED 50 values 12.5-128.7 ng dimethoate per insect). The highest resistance ratios were found in populations from Crete, and the lowest in those from Cyprus. This variation could be attributed to different selection pressures from insecticidal applications among populations from the various regions. Migration of resistant genotypes, either autonomous or via commerce, may also be involved.

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A real-time PCR assay based on TaqMan technology was developed and evaluated for the rapid detection of the B and Q biotypes of Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae). A survey was conducted during 2005-2007 in order to identify the distribution and prevalence of B. tabaci biotypes in Cyprus using the real-time PCR assay. More than 700 adult whiteflies collected from 35 cultivated and weed plant species were individually haplotyped using TaqMan PCR, and the results of the assay were validated by restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis and DNA sequencing of the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I (mtCOI) gene. Two biotypes, B and Q, were identified in the collected plant species on the island. The real-time PCR and RFLP assay consistently yielded the same results, although the real-time assay was more sensitive and less time consuming. Phylogenetic analysis of the mtCOI DNA sequences corroborated the identity of the B and Q biotypes 100% of the time and by phylogenetic analysis the haplotypes grouped, as expected, in the major North African-Mediterranean-Middle Eastern clade of the B. tabaci complex.