Solanum torvum (STO) and edible insects are potential dietary approaches to prevent malnutrition. Hence, we determined the effect of STO and insect powders on improving nutritional status in malnourished rats. Malnutrition was induced in rats by feeding 5% protein, ~2 ppm Fe (LPI) diet for 21 days. During the 14 day repletion, five groups of rats (n = 8) were fed diets supplemented with Acheta domesticus (cricket, ADO), Rhynchophorus phoenicis fabricius (palm weevil larvae, RFA), STO, ADO + STO (TAD), and casein + ferrous sulfate (PIS, positive control), as well as a non-supplemented group (negative control, LPI). A normal (NOM) group was fed protein-Fe sufficient (PIS) diet throughout the study. Body composition was measured by Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. The hemoglobin (Hb) repletion method was used to assess relative biological value (RBV, compared to PIS) of the supplemented groups. No differences were found in weight gain, bone mineral content, lean and fat mass, and organ weights among the edible insects and PIS groups, but these results differed from STO and the LPI groups. An increase in Hb Fe and RBV with ADO and RFA was comparable to PIS. ADO and RFA could be excellent sources of protein and bioavailable Fe, making it a sustainable, low-cost food source to prevent malnutrition in humans.

CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW………………………………………………………... 4 Prevalence, Causes, Risk Factors, and Consequences of Iron Deficiency and Anemia… 4 Prevalence of Iron Deficiency and Anemia……………………………………... 4 Causes and Risk Factors of Iron Deficiency and Anemia………………………. 4 iii Interventions……………………………………………………………………………. Iron Supplementation and Home Fortification………………………………… Improved Dietary Diversity……………………………………………………. Biofortification…………………………………………………………………. Iron Fortification………………………………………………………………... Ferrous Fortificants……………………………………………………………... Ferric Fortificants………………………………………………………………. Elemental Iron Fortificants……………………………………………………... Encapsulated Fortificants………………………………………………………. Heme and Organic Fortificants………………………………………………… Methods to Improve Iron Absorption…………………………………………... Existing Methods for Identification and Quantification of Iron Fortificants …………… Conclusions…………………………………………………………………………….. References……………………………………………………………………………....

Objectives Nutritious underutilized foods (NUFs) such as Solanum torvum (STO) and edible insects are potential sustainable dietary approaches to prevent malnutrition and improve food security. However, little is known about nutrient bioavailability from NUFs. This study determined the effect of STO and insect powders on improving nutritional status of malnourished rats. Methods Malnutrition was induced in weanling male Sprague-Dawley rats by feeding 5% protein with low Fe (LPI) diet for 21 days. During 14-day repletion, 5 groups of rats (n = 8) were fed the LPI diet supplemented with cricket, palm weevil larvae, STO, cricket + STO and casein + ferrous sulfate (HPI, positive control) while another group remained on the LPI diet (negative control). Repletion diets contained 15% protein and 20 ppm Fe, but palm larvae diet contained only 10 ppm Fe. Body composition was measured by dual X-ray absorptiometry. Hemoglobin (Hb) repletion method was used to compare relative bioavailability (RBV) of the HPI group to the other groups. Results Collectively, there were no differences in improved growth rate and body composition measures in groups repleted with edible insects and HPI (P = 0.08). Growth rate was 7.9 times higher in HPI compared to STO and 4.2 times higher in HPI compared to LPI (P < 0.0001). Changes in body composition were similar in STO and LPI but significantly different from HPI. Increase in Hb Fe with cricket (2.00 ± 0.90 mg) and palm weevil larvae (1.17 ± 0.75 mg) was comparable to HPI (1.94 ± 0.74 mg) (P = 0.27). Compared to HPI, there were significant differences in Hb Fe with STO (−0.08 ± 0.37 mg) and LPI (0.55 ± 0.18 mg). When RBV was calculated based on Hb Fe and food intake, RBV was 1.3 for palm weevil larvae but this was not significantly different from HPI (RBV = 1.00) and cricket (RBV = 0.99) (P = 0.83). RBV was similar in STO and LPI, and 100 times lower compared to HPI (P < 0.0001). Conclusions Though other benefits of STO may be plausible, no nutritional benefits were found in this study, but cricket and palm weevil larvae could be excellent alternative sources of protein and bioavailable Fe and can be sustainable, cheap and locally available foods to prevent malnutrition in humans in countries where they are culturally accepted. Funding Sources Doris A. Adams endowment funds from the College of Human Sciences at Iowa State University, Ames.

Objectives Fortification is a common strategy to reduce the prevalence of iron deficiency anemia (IDA). Currently, manufacturers are able to fortify wheat flour with cheaper iron compounds with lower bioavailability, leading to less of an impact on IDA. Therefore, a method is needed for government agencies to monitor the type of iron added to flour. The objective was to develop a quick and simple method to qualitatively determine iron compounds commonly used for fortifying wheat flour. Methods Unfortified wheat flour was fortified with 40 ppm using these salts: ferric pyrophosphate (FePP), ferrous sulfate (FeSO4), ferrous citrate (FeC), ferrous fumarate (FeF), and sodium iron EDTA (NaFeEDTA), except for electrolytic iron (EFe) where 60 ppm was added. Iron salts were identified based on their magnetic property, solubility in water or acid, and oxidation state. EFe was identified by passing a magnet through the flour. Ferrous and ferric salts were identified using potassium thiocyanate (KSCN) in 3 N hydrochloric acid (HCl) with and without hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Ferric salts (NaFeDTA and FePP) were identified using Ferrozine and ascorbic acid. Poor solubility of FeF in weak acid with KSCN was used to differentiate it from FeSO4 and FeC. Acidity testing with phenolphthalein and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) further differentiated FeC from FeSO4. Flour samples were tested in triplicates and blinded samples were tested independently. Results EFe from flour was visible on the magnet. In addition to producing red specks with KSCN, NaFeEDTA in water produced strong color with Ferrozine and ascorbic acid, unlike FePP. Using KSCN and H2O2, FeF did not produce pink color with 0.1 N HCl, unlike FeSO4 and FeC. Acidity testing differentiated FeSO4 and FeC; FeSO4 produced pink color with less NaOH than FeC. Blinded flour samples were independently and correctly identified to confirm the validity of the methods. Conclusions These quick, inexpensive, and reliable qualitative methods will be useful for agencies to identify the type of iron added to flour to monitor the quality of iron fortification strategies. Funding Sources Supported by Nutrition International through a grant from Global Affairs Canada.