The storm water management model (SWMM) is a widely used tool for urban drainage design and planning. Hundreds of peerreviewed articles and conference proceedings have been written describing applications of SWMM. This review focuses on collecting information on model performance with respect to calibration and validation in the peer-reviewed literature. The major developmental history and applications of the model are also presented. The results provide utility to others looking for a quick reference to gauge the integrity of their own unique SWMM application. A gap analysis assesses the model's ability to perform water-quality simulations considering green infrastructure (GI)/low impact development (LID) designs and effectiveness. It is concluded that the level of detail underlying the conceptual model of SWMM versus its overall computational parsimony is well balanced-making it an adequate model for large and medium-scale hydrologic applications. However, embedding a new mechanistic algorithm or providing user guidance for coupling with other models will be necessary to realistically simulate diffuse pollutant sources, their fate and transport, and the effectiveness of GI/LID implementation scenarios.
Context: Lateral ankle sprains occur more frequently than any other orthopedic injury. Athletes often report sustaining more injuries late in competition when fatigue is present. Objective: To evaluate neuromuscular function of the ankle musculature after fatigue. Design: Experimental, pretest-posttest. Setting: Research laboratory. Participants: Ten female and 9 male college-aged subjects. Intervention: Fatigue was induced via continuous concentric and eccentric muscle actions of the ankle: inversion (INV), eversion (EV), plantar flexion (PF), and dorsiflexion (DF). Main Outcome Measures: Peak torque (PT), peak EMG, and median frequency (MF) were calculated prefatigue and postfatigue in the tibialis anterior (TA), peroneus longus (PER), and lateral gastrocnemius (GAS) muscles. Results: Main effects were noted for test (P < 0.0125) in all statistical tests performed indicating changes in PT, peak EMG, and MF after fatigue. Conclusions: A significant decrease in MF of the PER muscle after PF fatigue and corresponding with a decreased firing rate, may be of importance, especially with regard to the role in countering the violent moment seen with inversion ankle sprains.
Food aid is a critical component of the global food system, particularly when emergency situations arise. For the first time, we evaluate the water footprint of food aid. To do this, we draw on food aid data from the World Food Programme and virtual water content estimates from WaterStat. We find that the total water footprint of food aid was 10 km 3 in 2005, which represents approximately 0.5% of the water footprint of food trade and 2.0% of the water footprint of land grabbing (i.e., water appropriation associated with large agricultural land deals). The United States is by far the largest food aid donor and contributes 82% of the water footprint of food aid. The countries that receive the most water embodied in aid are Ethiopia, Sudan, North Korea, Bangladesh and Afghanistan. Notably, we find that there is significant overlap between countries that receive food aid and those that have their land grabbed. Multivariate regression results indicate that donor water footprints are driven by political and environmental variables, whereas recipient water footprints are driven by land grabbing and food indicators.
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