The physical, chemical and biological properties of soil may be modified by tillage, fertilization and cover crops. However there is little knowledge on long-term effects on soil properties, notably under Mediterranean climate. Moreover, biological indicators such as micro-arthropods can be used for a cost-effective analysis of soil biodiversity. Here, we studied physical and biological properties of a sandy loam soil in central Italy under a 4-year rotation of maize–durum wheat–cover crop–sunflower–durum wheat–cover crop during 15 years. We analysed the effects of two tillage systems, conventional tillage (CT) and no-tillage (NT); two N fertilization rates, without N and medium N level; and three soil covers: cash crop residue as control, Brassica juncea and Vicia villosa. Results show that no tillage increased soil organic matter content in the upper 10-cm layer (3.31%) compared to the conventional tillage (2.19%). No tillage also improved structure stability and lowered bulk density in the same soil profile. No-tillage systems showed higher soil microbial biomass (+71%) and respiration (+44%), and a higher abundance and diversity of micro-arthropods.We conclude that no tillage is an effective measure to improve the physical and biological quality of soil in Mediterranean conditions. No-tillage positive effect can be enhanced by the right choice of N fertilization and cover crop cultivation. Bio-indicators such as microarthropods can be very predictive of soil habitability by organisms

Spectral reflectance data originating from Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) imagery is a valuable tool to monitor plant nutrition, reduce nitrogen (N) application to real needs, thus producing both economic and environmental benefits. The objectives of the trial were i) to compare the spectral reflectance of 3 turfgrasses acquired via UAV and by a ground-based instrument; ii) to test the sensitivity of the 2 data acquisition sources in detecting induced variation in N levels. N application gradients from 0 to 250 kg ha-1 were created on 3 different turfgrass species: Cynodon dactylon x transvaalensis (Cdxt) ‘Patriot’, Zoysia matrella (Zm) ‘Zeon’ and Paspalum vaginatum (Pv) ‘Salam’. Proximity and remote-sensed reflectance measurements were acquired using a GreenSeeker handheld crop sensor and a UAV with onboard a multispectral sensor, to determine Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI). Proximity-sensed NDVI is highly correlated with data acquired from UAV with r values ranging from 0.83 (Zm) to 0.97 (Cdxt). Relating NDVI-UAV with clippings N, the highest r is for Cdxt (0.95). The most reactive species to N fertilization is Cdxt with a clippings N% ranging from 1.2% to 4.1%. UAV imagery can adequately assess the N status of turfgrasses and its spatial variability within a species, so for large areas, such as golf courses, sod farms or race courses, UAV acquired data can optimize turf management. For relatively small green areas, a hand-held crop sensor can be a less expensive and more practical option.

Summary The influence of cropping systems constituted by the combination of three input levels (low, intermediate and high) and four 2‐year rotations between a spring summer crop and winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) on the density and composition of the winter wheat weed flora was evaluated from 1989 to 1992. Spring summer crops were maize (Zea mays L.). soyabean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.). sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L.) and sunflower (Helianthus and L.) Total weed density at the end of the wheat tillering stage ranged from 2.5 to 128.7 plants m‐2 and generally decreased with cropping intensity, although to a differing extent, depending upon rotation. Differences among weed communities of the 12 cropping systems were mostly dependent upon input level. The effect of the preceding crop on the weed flora composition of winter wheat was evident only with reduced herbicide use (low‐input systems). Weed species could be ascribed to four categories: (a) species sporadically associated with cropping systems (most of the weeds); (b) species associated with a specific input level (e.g. Papaver rhoeas L. to low and intermediate input levels and Veronica persica Poiret to the high input ievel): (c) species associated with a specific rotation (e.g. Anm majus L. to sugar beet winter wheat): and (d) species associated with specitie plots that become important every other year (e.g. Convolvulus arvensis L. and Stellaria media (L.) Vill.).

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Olive mill wastewater (OMW) is the main residual product of olive processing and its disposal can\ud represent a relevant environmental issue in Mediterranean countries, where olive oil production is large\ud and concentrated in a short-lasting period. OMW is characterised by high pollutant load, salinity and\ud phytotoxic levels of polyphenols, but also by a high amount of organic compounds and plant mineral\ud nutrients. Therefore, OMW field spreading may represent a low cost contribution to crop fertilisation and\ud soil amendment. Here, we assessed the short- and long-term effects of long-lasting repeated OMW\ud applications on soil chemical and biochemical properties and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF). In\ud addition the influence of two OMW management strategies, characterised by different seasonality of\ud spreading (autumn and spring times) was evaluated. Soil was amended by 0 and 80 m3 ha1 of OMW.\ud Principal coordinate analyses (PCO) together with PERMANOVAs showed that long-lasting repeated\ud OMW spreading: (i) affected the main soil chemical and biochemical parameters in the short-term,\ud whereas did not determine long-term residual effects irrespective of the application times; (ii)\ud decreased AM fungal root colonisation both after autumn and spring OMW applications; (iii) improved\ud arbuscule occurrence in the short- and long-term for both disposal times. Therefore, at least regarding\ud the monitored parameters, we can argue that OMW may be utilised as organic amendment in agriculture\ud under controlled conditions given the short-term negative effects on soil quality, which can be considered\ud negligible after a suitable waiting period