The globalization of trade in foodstuffs is now a firmly established feature on the landscape of economic geography, although its impacts and desirability remain the source of controversy. Yet, while the liberalization of trade in food continues apace we are simultaneously witnessing a reassertion of foods with local and regional identities. This ‘counter-trend’ has led some economic and agricultural geographers to propose that an ‘alternative geography of food’ may be coming into view. If this contention is correct, it would seem to be implicated in new forms of food governance, notably European legislation that has provided legal protection to designated regional foods, through the ‘PDO’ and ‘PGI’ labels. In this paper we explore the background to the development of these protective devices, which, we argue, illustrates profound differences between ‘northern’ and ‘southern’ food cultures and agricultural systems within Europe. In stylized terms, we argue that the former places great emphasis on ‘efficient’ production of commodities while the latter retains strong affiliations to ‘ terroir’, tradition and artisanal production. Analysis of the spatial distribution of registered regional foodstuffs reflects this north-south divide, with more than 75 percent of the products registered in five southern EU states (France, Italy, Greece, Portugal and Spain). Our analysis, which compares the two ‘cultures of food’ using conventions theory, shows that spatial differentiation also exists at a regional level and that a similar proportion of PDO products originates from Less Favoured Areas (LFAs). This implies that the new geography of ‘alternative’ foods is becoming increasingly complex. We explore the obstacles and opportunities, arising within the two distinct food cultures of ‘north’ and ‘south’.
This article discusses the economic dimensions of agroecological farming systems in Europe. It firstly theoretically elaborates the reasons why, and under what conditions, agroecological farming systems have the potential to produce higher incomes than farms that follow the conventional logic. This theoretical exposition is then followed by a presentation of empirical material from a wide range of European countries that shows the extent to which this potential is being realized. The empirical data draw upon different styles of farming that can be described as 'proto-agroecological': approaches to farming that are agroecological by nature, but which may not necessarily explicitly define themselves as agroecological. The empirical material that we present shows the huge potential and radical opportunities that Europe's, often silent, 'agroecological turn' offers to farmers that could (and should) be the basis for the future transformation of European agricultural policies, since agroecology not only allows for more sustainable production of healthier food but also considerably improves farmers' incomes. It equally carries the promise of re-enlarging productive agricultural (and related) employment and increasing the total income generated by the agricultural sector, at both regional and national levels. While we recognise that agroecology is a worldwide and multidimensional phenomenon we have chosen to limit this analysis to Europe and the economic dimension. This choice is made in order to refute current discourses that represent agroecology as unproductive and unprofitable and an option that would require massive subsidies.
This chapter analyses the dynamics behind the growth of organic farming in the developing world. It identifies two organizational trajectories within this; a highly visible, and rapidly growing, formal certified sector and a less easily quantified, informal or agro-ecological sector. The former is clearly oriented towards global commodity chains and is intended to bring benefits to producers by offering premia for ecological production and, as such, can be viewed as a form of ecological modernization. The latter approach implies a reconceptualization of Northern perceptions about organic farming, in so much as those adopting this approach often report higher yields, incomes and net returns, leading to enhanced food and economic security. This chapter examines these reported benefits through the prisms of agronomy, economics, multifunctionality and livelihood analysis.
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