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Climate change induced sea-level rise (SLR) is on its increase globally. Regionally the lowlands of China, Vietnam, Bangladesh, and islands of the Malaysian, Indonesian and Philippine archipelagos are among the world’s most threatened regions. Sea-level rise has major impacts on the ecosystems and society. It threatens coastal populations, economic activities, and fragile ecosystems as mangroves, coastal salt-marches and wetlands. This paper provides a summary of the current state of knowledge of sea level-rise and its effects on both human and natural ecosystems. The focus is on coastal urban areas and low lying deltas in South-East Asia and Vietnam, as one of the most threatened areas in the world. About 3 mm per year reflects the growing consensus on the average SLR worldwide. The trend speeds up during recent decades. The figures are subject to local, temporal and methodological variation. In Vietnam the average values of 3.3 mm per year during the 1993-2014 period are above the worldwide average. Although a basic conceptual understanding exists that the increasing global frequency of the strongest tropical cyclones is related with the increasing temperature and SLR, this relationship is insufficiently understood. Moreover the precise, complex environmental, economic, social, and health impacts are currently unclear. SLR, storms and changing precipitation patterns increase flood risks, in particular in urban areas. Part of the current scientific debate is on how urban agglomeration can be made more resilient to flood risks. Where originally mainly technical interventions dominated this discussion, it becomes increasingly clear that proactive special planning, flood defense, flood risk mitigation, flood preparation, and flood recovery are important, but costly instruments. Next to the main focus on SLR and its effects on resilience, the paper reviews main SLR associated impacts: Floods and inundation, salinization, shoreline change, and effects on mangroves and wetlands. The hazards of SLR related floods increase fastest in urban areas. This is related with both the increasing surface major cities are expected to occupy during the decades to come and the increasing coastal population. In particular Asia and its megacities in the southern part of the continent are increasingly at risk. The discussion points to complexity, inter-disciplinarity, and the related uncertainty, as core characteristics. An integrated combination of mitigation, adaptation and resilience measures is currently considered as the most indicated way to resist SLR today and in the near future.References Aerts J.C.J.H., Hassan A., Savenije H.H.G., Khan M.F., 2000. 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Abstract. In this paper, the random bounded operators from a Banach space X into a Banach space Y and the problem of extending random operators are investigated. It is shown that unlike the deterministic bounded operators, the random version of the principle of uniform boundedness and the Banach-Steinhaus theorem do not hold for random bounded operators. In addition, a random operator can be extended to apply to all random inputs if and only if it is bounded. As a consequence, we conclude that the Ito stochastic integral cannot be extended in a natural fashion to all random functions with square-integrable sample paths.

The Hoi An World Heritage site in Vietnam has faced increasing coastal erosion as a result of both natural and anthropogenic causes since the 2010s. Main drivers are the construction of hydropower dams on the Vu Gia and Thu Bon Rivers, illegal sand mining in the South China Sea, and sea level rise along the Central Coast Vietnam. Coastal erosion affects the tourism attraction of this area. A challenge for both the national government and the local authorities is understanding the nature of the contemporary coastal erosion; this includes the beach erosion and tourism relationship. This study deals with the damage valuation of the beach erosion in relation to the tourism revenue based on the hedonic pricing method. Cua Dai beach of Hoi An is structured into 23 beach sectors along the shore, each of which shows a relative homogeny in physical characteristics, anthropogenic activities, and socioeconomics. The beach value is function of morphological variables such as beach width and distance to the city center, and tourism variables such as tourist area, coastal businesses, the number of hotels, and the number of hotel rooms. The two-stage least squares (2SLS) of the custom-log model is the most accurate approach. The total projected revenue losses are more than an estimated 29 million US dollars by 2040. The present values of the total annual revenue losses in 2020, 2030, and 2040 are about 29.6, 21.4, and 14 million US dollars, respectively, at an interest rate of 5%. The results suggest mitigation strategies and policy recommendations. The proposal includes improving the adaptation capacity to coastal erosion using innovative, smart, and wise solutions. Beach nourishment and coastal defense structures can be sustainable management tools combating coastal erosion only if the multicausal coastal processes are properly considered and a detailed cost-benefit analysis is performed.

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The paper deals with a combination of the Digital Shoreline Analysis System (DSAS) and remote sensing, studying historical mangrove shoreline changes and mangrove zoning in the Giao Thuy coastal area of the Nam Dinh province, Vietnam. The results show an over-all mangrove area increase of 2,487 hectares during the years 2005-2014. This dynamics results from both degradation and increase of the mangroves. The calculated degradation rate is 1.41 m yr -1 , and the growth rate is 1.26 m yr -1 on average. 4 different mangrove zones were delineated based on the End Point Rate (EPR) values of DSAS transects. The differential evolution of the mangroves in these zones is driven by socio-economic and environmental factors. The results contribute to practices of mangrove planning and management in a coastal area. Furthermore, historical mangrove shoreline change provides indicators to monitor coastal environmental changes for global warming, climate change, storm effects, sea level change, pollution, and sedimentation rates.