Objective: To evaluate the relationship between egg consumption and CHD and stroke mortality using the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 1988-1994 (NHANES III) and follow-up survey. Design: A cross-sectional survey using a stratified, multi-stage probability sample was analysed, adjusting for survey design. Egg consumption was obtained from the FFQ and separated into categories of egg intake. Hazard ratios (HR) were calculated for CHD and stroke mortality using multivariate Cox regression models. Setting: A health and nutrition survey conducted in the USA from 1988 to 1994 with follow-up through 31 December 2000. Subjects: The study population included men and women who were free of CVD and had completed a FFQ at baseline. Results: Multivariate models adjusting for health, lifestyle and dietary factors indicated that 'high' egg consumption ($7 times/week v. ,1 time/week) was not associated with significantly increased CHD mortality (HR 5 1?13, 95 % CI 0?61, 2?11 (men); HR 5 0?92, 95 % CI 0?27, 3?11 (women)). There was a statistically significant inverse association between 'high' egg consumption and stroke mortality among men (HR 5 0?27, 95 % CI 0?10, 0?73), but the estimate was imprecise because of sparse data. We did not observe a statistically significant positive association between 'high' egg consumption and CHD or stroke mortality in analyses restricted to individuals with diabetes, but these analyses may be limited due to the small number of diabetics. Conclusions: We did not find a significant positive association between egg consumption and increased risk of mortality from CHD or stroke in the US population. These results corroborate the findings of previous studies.

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Efforts to cope with the legacy of our industrial cities--blight, poverty, environmental degradation, ailing communities--have galvanized action across the public and private sectors to move vacant industrial land, also referred to as brownfields, to productive use; to curb sprawling development outside urban areas; and to reinvigorate urban communities. Such efforts, however, may be proceeding without thorough investigations into the environmental health and safety risks associated with industrial brownfields properties and the needs of affected neighborhoods. We describe an approach to characterize vacant and underused industrial and commercial properties in Southeast Baltimore and the health and well being of communities living near these properties. The screening algorithm developed to score and rank properties in Southeast Baltimore (n= 182) showed that these sites are not benign. The historical data revealed a range of hazardous operations, including metal smelting, oil refining, warehousing, and transportation, as well as paints, plastics, and metals manufacturing. The data also identified hazardous substances linked to these properties, including heavy metals, solvents, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, plasticizers, and insecticides, all of which are suspected or recognized toxicants and many of which are persistent in the environment. The health analysis revealed disparities across Southeast Baltimore communities, including excess deaths from respiratory illness (lung cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, influenza, and pneumonia), total cancers, and a "leading cause of death" index and a spatial and statistical relationship between environmentally degraded brownfields areas and at-risk communities. Brownfields redevelopment is a key component of our national efforts to address environmental justice and health disparities across urban communities and is critical to urban revitalization. Incorporating public health into brownfields-related cleanup and land-use decisions will increase the odds for successful neighborhood redevelopment and long-term public health benefits.

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This study reviews epidemiological and experimental evidence on the relationship between egg consumption and coronary heart disease (CHD) risks among type II diabetes mellitus (T2DM) individuals and T2DM risk in non‐diabetic subjects. Four of the six studies that examined cardiovascular disease and mortality and egg consumption among diabetics found a statistically significant association. Of the seven studies evaluating incident T2DM and egg consumption, three prospective studies found a statistically significant association. Lack of adjustment for dietary confounders was a common study limitation. Differences in study design, T2DM status, exposure measurement, subject age, control for confounders and follow‐up time limit the feasibility of a meta‐analysis. A small number of experimental studies examined the relationship between egg intake and CHD risk biomarkers among diabetics or individuals with T2DM risk factors. Conflicting results coupled with small sample sizes prevent broad interpretation. Studies among healthy subjects found suggestive evidence that dietary interventions including eggs may reduce the risk of T2DM and metabolic syndrome. Given the study limitations, these findings need to be further investigated.

Caffeine consumption among US teenagers (13-17y), young adults (18-24y) and adults (25-29y) for a 10 year period was examined using NHANES 2003-12. Of the 85% who consume caffeine 84% consume caffeinated beverages. This percentage remained constant despite new caffeine sources. Less than 7.1% of the population consume energy drinks. While mean caffeine intake among teenage caffeine consumers decreased from 62 to 55 mg/day (p-value = 0.018) over the 10-year period, no discernable trend was observed for other age groups. Caffeine intake from energy drinks increased, and was only statistically significant for age 18-24y accounting for <9% of total caffeine intake. Mean caffeine intake per consumption occasion was equivalent between coffee and energy drinks for teenagers and young adults. During a 30-min period mean caffeine consumption was similar when an energy drink was the only consumption event or when it occurred with other caffeinated beverage products suggestive of a substitution effect. Linear regression models of caffeine intake from energy drinks against caffeine from coffee, tea and soda among energy drink consumers in the upper 50th percentile shows a statistically significant inverse relationship (R2 = 28%, coffee: β = -0.35, p < 0.001; tea: β = -0.44, p < 0.001; soda: β = -0.22, p = 0.036) and further supports the substitution concept.

The incidence of atopic dermatitis (AD) is increasing worldwide. Clinical studies have observed reduced risks of AD among infants fed with 100% whey partially hydrolyzed infant formula (PHF-W) compared with intact protein cow's milk formula. To evaluate this potential relationship more comprehensively, a systematic review of the literature was conducted. Studies (n = 18, representing 12 distinct study populations) that specified the protein source of the formula, evaluated healthy-term infants, compared the use of PHF-W with intact protein cow's milk formula, and reported results for AD were included. A critical assessment of the methodological quality of studies was conducted. In all studies, a reduced incidence of AD and/or atopic manifestations that included AD was observed. The cumulative incidence of AD was significantly lower among infants over at least 3 years of follow-up in the PHF-W group compared with the intact protein cow's milk group. Exclusive breastfeeding should be encouraged as the primary means to prevent atopic risk. However, when infants are not exclusively breastfed, PHF-W may be considered an effective measure to potentially reduce the risk of developing AD.

Twenty-four-hour recall data from the Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII) are frequently used to estimate dietary exposure for risk assessment. Food frequency questionnaires are traditional instruments of epidemiological research; however, their application in dietary exposure and risk assessment has been limited. This article presents a probabilistic method of bridging the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) food frequency and the CSFII data to estimate longitudinal (usual) intake, using a case study of seafood mercury exposures for two population subgroups (females 16 to 49 years and children 1 to 5 years). Two hundred forty-nine CSFII food codes were mapped into 28 NHANES fish/shellfish categories. FDA and state/local seafood mercury data were used. A uniform distribution with minimum and maximum blood-diet ratios of 0.66 to 1.07 was assumed. A probabilistic assessment was conducted to estimate distributions of individual 30-day average daily fish/shellfish intakes, methyl mercury exposure, and blood levels. The upper percentile estimates of fish and shellfish intakes based on the 30-day daily averages were lower than those based on two- and three-day daily averages. These results support previous findings that distributions of "usual" intakes based on a small number of consumption days provide overestimates in the upper percentiles. About 10% of the females (16 to 49 years) and children (1 to 5 years) may be exposed to mercury levels above the EPA's RfD. The predicted 75th and 90th percentile blood mercury levels for the females in the 16-to-49-year group were similar to those reported by NHANES. The predicted 90th percentile blood mercury levels for children in the 1-to-5-year subgroup was similar to NHANES and the 75th percentile estimates were slightly above the NHANES.