BackgroundPosttraumatic stress disorder is characterized by an overactive noradrenergic system conferring core posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms such as hyperarousal and reexperiencing. Monoamine oxidase A is one of the key enzymes mediating the turnover of noradrenaline. Here, DNA methylation of the monoamine oxidase A gene exonI/intronI region was investigated for the first time regarding its role in posttraumatic stress disorder risk and severity.MethodsMonoamine oxidase A methylation was analyzed via direct sequencing of sodium bisulfite-treated DNA extracted from blood cells in a total sample of N=652 (441 male) patients with current posttraumatic stress disorder, patients with remitted posttraumatic stress disorder, and healthy probands (comparison group) recruited at 5 centers in Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia, and the Republic of Kosovo. Posttraumatic stress disorder severity was measured by means of the Clinician-Administered Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Scale and its respective subscores representing distinct symptom clusters.ResultsIn the male, but not the female sample, patients with current posttraumatic stress disorder displayed hypermethylation of 3 CpGs (CpG3=43656362; CpG12=43656514; CpG13=43656553, GRCh38.p2 Assembly) as compared with remitted Posttraumatic Stress Disorder patients and healthy probands. Symptom severity (Clinician-Administered Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Scale scores) in male patients with current posttraumatic stress disorder significantly correlated with monoamine oxidase A methylation. This applied particularly to symptom clusters related to reexperiencing of trauma (cluster B) and hyperarousal (cluster D).ConclusionsThe present findings suggest monoamine oxidase A gene hypermethylation, potentially resulting in enhanced noradrenergic signalling, as a disease status and severity marker of current posttraumatic stress disorder in males. If replicated, monoamine oxidase A hypermethylation might serve as a surrogate marker of a hyperadrenergic subtype of posttraumatic stress disorder guiding personalized treatment decisions on the use of antiadrenergic agents.

Background: Exposure to life-threatening events is common and everyone will most likely experience this type of trauma during their lifetime. Reactions to these events are highly heterogeneous and seems to be influenced by genes as well. Some individuals will develop posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), while others will not. In this study, our aim was to analyze the correlation between single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) within the oxytocin receptor (OXTR) gene (rs53576 and rs2254298), the RAR-related orphan receptor A (RORA) gene (rs8042149) and the cannabinoid receptor 1 (CNR1) gene (rs1049353) and PTSD. All candidate genes have been previously associated with stress related disorders and the reaction to traumatic events. Subjects and methods: Participants (N=719) have been exposed to war-related trauma during the war in SouthEastern Europe (Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and Kosovo). We correlated the presence and absence of current and lifetime PTSD as well as PTSD severity (Clinician Administered PTSD scale (CAPS)) and current psychopathology (Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI) score) with the mentioned SNPs. DNA was isolated from whole blood and genotyped for OXTR rs2254298 and rs53576 following previously published protocols, for RORA rs8042149 via PCR-RFLP and CNR1 rs1049353 via KASP. Results: Nominally significant results were found for OXTR rs53576 in connection with the CAPS and BSI scores within lifetime PTSD patients. The additive allelic model indicated that G allele carriers achieved lower CAPS (p=0.0090) and BSI (p=0.0408) scores than participants carrying one or two copies of the A allele. These results did not withstand correction for multiple tests. No significant results were observed for OXTR rs2254298, RORA rs8042149 and CNR1 rs1049353 although the results for RORA showed a slight tendency that rs8042149 may influence the level of BSI scores in current PTSD patients. Conclusions: This study points to a role of the OXTR gene in PTSD and the related psychopathology following war related trauma.

Background: Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a complex stress related disorder, that follows a severe traumatic experience, characterized with an intense sense of terror, fear, and helplessness. The aim of this study is to identify associations of genetic variations within candidate genes DRD2 and DRD4 with various PTSD related phenotypes. PTSD lifetime and PTSD current subjects were analyzed separately, each of them were analyzed in a Case/Control design, as well as regarding BSI and CAPS within cases only.Subjects and methods: 719 (487 male, 232 female) participants who had experienced war-related trauma between 1991 and 1999 in Bosnia and Hercegovina, Kosovo and Croatia were included in the study. Sociodemographic questionnaire, Clinician Administered PTSD Scale (CAPS) and the Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI) were used to collect clinical data.Results: The DRD2 rs1800497 variant and a variable number tandem repeat (VNTR) located in exon three of DRD4 were investigated for association with PTSD. In case control analyses we did not identify any significant associations. Within the PTSD current patients, we identified an association of DRD2 rs1800497 with BSI in the genotypic and the recessive model with the T allele as the risk allele. Conclusion:Our findings suggest that rs1800497 of DRD2 gene is involved in pathogenesis of PTSD.

Background: Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a disorder that occurs in some people who have experienced a severe traumatic event. Several genetic studies suggest that gene encoding proteins of catechol-O-methyl-transferase (COMT) may be relevant for the pathogenesis of PTSD. Some researchers suggested that the elevation of interleukin-6 (IL6) correlates with major depression and PTSD. The aim of this study was to investigate whether the single nucleotide polymorphisms COMT rs4680 (Val158Met) and IL6 rs1800795 are associated with PTSD and contribute to the severity of PTSD symptoms.Subjects and methods: This study comprised 747 participants that experienced war between 1991 and 1999 in the South Eastern Europe conflicts. COMT rs4680 (Val158Met) and IL6 rs1800795 genotypes were determined in 719 participants (369 with and 350 without PTSD). The Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (M.I.N.I.), the Clinician Administrated PTSD Scale (CAPS) questionnaire and the Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI) were used for data collection.Results: Regarding the COMT gene polymorphism, the results of the regression analyses for BSI total score were significant in the lifetime PTSD group in the dominant (P=0.031) and the additive allelic model (P=0.047). Regarding the IL6 gene, a significant difference was found for the recessive model predicting CAPS total score in the lifetime PTSD group (P=0.048), and indicated an association between the C allele and higher CAPS scores. n the allelic, genotypic and rezessive model, the results for BSI total score were significant in the lifetime PTSD group (P=0.033, P=0.028 and P=0.009), suggesting a correlation of the C allele with higher BSI scores Conclusion: Although our nominally significant results did not withstand correction for multiple tests they may support a relevance of the COMT (Val158Met) and IL6 rs1800795 polymorphism for aspects of PTSD in war traumatized individuals.

Background: Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a stress related disorder which can occur in an individual after exposure to a traumatic event. It most commonly co-occurs with depression. The two disorders share not only overlapping symptoms, but also genetic diathesis. The aim of this study was to investigate the potential role of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of the two serotonergic candidate genes 5-hydroxytryptamine receptor 1A (HTR1A) and tryptophan hydroxylase 2 (TPH2) in the pathogenesis of PTSD and comorbid psychopathology. Subjects and methods: 719 (487 males, 232 females) participants who had experienced war-related trauma between 1991 and 1999 in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo and Croatia were included in the study. The Sociodemographic questionnaire, Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (M.I.N.I.), Clinician Administered PTSD Scale (CAPS) and Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI) were used to collect clinical data. The SNPs rs6295 (HTR1A), rs11178997 and rs1386494 (TPH2) were investigated for their association with PTSD and comorbid psychopathology. Results: A nominal significant association was found between the BSI total score in Lifetime PTSD with the SNP rs6295 of the HTR1A gene. The best result was seen in the dominant model (P=0.018), with the minor allele (C) being the risk allele. Several BSI subscores were also associated with the minor (C) allele in Lifetime PTSD. No association was found for the TPH2 SNPs rs11178997 and rs1386494 in relation to PTSD or comorbid psychopathology. Conclusions: Our findings suggest that rs6295 in the HTR1A gene may contribute to the psychopathology of PTSD.

Objectives Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is triggered by extremely stressful environmental events and characterized by high emotional distress, re-experiencing of trauma, avoidance and hypervigilance. The present study uses polygenic risk scores (PRS) derived from the UK Biobank (UKBB) mega-cohort analysis as part of the PGC PTSD GWAS effort to determine the heritable basis of PTSD in the South Eastern Europe (SEE)-PTSD cohort. We further analyzed the relation between PRS and additional disease-related variables, such as number and intensity of life events, coping, sex and age at war on PTSD and CAPS as outcome variables. Methods Association of PRS, number and intensity of life events, coping, sex and age on PTSD were calculated using logistic regression in a total of 321 subjects with current and remitted PTSD and 337 controls previously subjected to traumatic events but not having PTSD. In addition, PRS and other disease-related variables were tested for association with PTSD symptom severity, measured by the Clinician Administrated PTSD Scale (CAPS) by liner regression. To assess the relationship between the main outcomes PTSD diagnosis and symptom severity, each of the examined variables was adjusted for all other PTSD related variables. Results The categorical analysis showed significant polygenic risk in patients with remitted PTSD and the total sample, whereas no effects were found on symptom severity. Intensity of life events as well as the individual coping style were significantly associated with PTSD diagnosis in both current and remitted cases. The dimensional analyses showed as association of war-related frequency of trauma with symptom severity, whereas the intensity of trauma yielded significant results independently of trauma timing in current PTSD. Conclusions The present PRS application in the SEE-PTSD cohort confirms modest but significant polygenic risk for PTSD diagnosis. Environmental factors, mainly the intensity of traumatic life events and negative coping strategies, yielded associations with PTSD both categorically and dimensionally with more significant p-values. This suggests that, at least in the present cohort of war-related trauma, the association of environmental factors and current individual coping strategies with PTSD psychopathology was stronger than the polygenic risk.

AimTo examine how the experience of genocide in Srebrenica in the early childhood (ages 1-5) influences the psychological health in adolescence.MethodsThis study included 100 school-attending adolescents, age 15-16 (born in 1990-91) who were divided in two groups according to the place of residence from 1992-1995: the Srebrenica group – adolescents who lived in Srebrenica during the siege and the non-Srebrenica group who lived in the “free territory,” were not wounded, and experienced no losses. We used the socio-demographic questionnaire created for the purposes of our study and the War Trauma Questionnaire, Posttraumatic Stress Reactions Questionnaire, Self-report Depressive Scale (Zung), Freiburg Personality Inventory, and the Lifestyle Questionnaire.ResultsSrebrenica adolescents experienced significantly more traumatic experiences (14.26 ± 3.11 vs 4.86 ± 3.16, P < 0.001). Although there was no significant difference in the total score of posttraumatic stress reactions and intensity of depression between the two groups, significantly higher scores of posttraumatic stress reaction were noticed for several specific questions. The most prominent defense mechanisms in both groups were projection, intellectualization, and reactive formation. Srebrenica adolescents had higher sociability levels (34.7% vs 16.0%, χ2 = 7.231, P = 0.020).ConclusionSrebrenica adolescents reported significantly more severe PTSD symptoms and significantly greater sociability. Our findings could be used for planning treatment and improving communication and overcoming traumas in war-affected areas.

Background:The aim of this study is to investigate the association of gene variations of the monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) and the serotonin transporter solute carrier family 6 member 4 (SLC6A4) gene with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) severity and coping strategies in patients with war related PTSD. Subjects and methods:The study included 747 individuals who had experienced war trauma in the South Eastern Europe conflicts between 1991 and 1999. Genotyping of the MAOA VNTR and SLC6A4 tandem repeat polymorphism in combination with rs25531 was done in 719 participants: 232 females and 487 males. Among them, 369 have had current or lifetime PTSD and 350 have had no PTSD symptoms. For psychometric approach we used the Clinician Administrated PTSD Scale (CAPS), the Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI), the adapted Hoffman-Lazarus Coping scale and a basic socio-demographic data questionnaire.Results: There were no significant intergroup (PTSD versus non PTSD) differences in the genotype distribution of MAOA and SLC6A4 gene polymorphisms. The primary finding of our study was that the MAOA short allele (MAOA-S) was nominally significantly associated with the severity of PTSD symptoms in the total subgroup of participants with lifetime PTSD; males for symptoms of hyperarrousal and females with symptoms of re-experience and hyperarousal. In our research the male subsample with current PTSD and MAOA-S genotype had nominally significantly higher scores for some positive coping strategies compared to those carrying the long allele genotype (MAOA-L). There was no significant association between the severity of PTSD symptoms, BSI phenotype, coping scores and the SLC6A4 genotype. Conclusion:The present results support the notion that MAOA VNTR gene variation modulates development and recovery of posttraumatic stress disorder in a war traumatised population, but did not support a connection between SLC6A4 gene variations and war related PTSD.