In a recent report, we demonstrated that distinct members of the secreted aspartic protease (Sap) family of Candida albicans are able to induce secretion of proinflammatory cytokines by human monocytes, independently of their proteolytic activity and specific pH optima. In particular, C. albicans Sap2 and Sap6 potently induced IL-1β, TNF-α, and IL-6 production. Here, we demonstrate that Sap2 and Sap6 proteins trigger IL-1β and IL-18 production through inflammasome activation. This occurs via NLRP3 and caspase-1 activation, which cleaves pro-IL-1β into secreted bioactive IL-1β, a cytokine that was induced by Saps in monocytes, in monocyte-derived macrophages and in dendritic cells. Downregulation of NLRP3 by RNA interference strongly reduced the secretion of bioactive IL-1β. Inflammasome activation required Sap internalization via a clathrin-dependent mechanism, intracellular induction of K + efflux, and ROS production. Inflammasome activation of monocytes induced by Sap2 and Sap6 differed from that induced by LPS-ATP in several aspects. Our data reveal novel immunoregulatory mechanisms of C. albicans and suggest that Saps contribute to the pathogenesis of candidiasis by fostering rather than evading host immunity.Keywords: Aspartic proteases r C. albicans r IL-1β r Inflammasome r Virulence factor IntroductionCandida albicans is a commensal fungus that colonizes human mucosal surfaces such as the vaginal and gastrointestinal tracts without causing harm. However, under conditions of primary or secondary immunodeficiency, this yeast can cause opportunistic infections such as mucosal inflammation and systemic sepsis [1]. The mortality rate associated with invasive candidiasis Correspondence: Dr. Anna Vecchiarelli e-mail: vecchiar@unipg.it has been reported to be as high as 40-50% [2]. Candida species are the fourth most common pathogens isolated from nosocomial bloodstream infections in the USA and Europe [3]. Although the immune status of the host plays a key role in the prevention or pathogenesis of C. albicans infections, a number of virulence attributes of C. albicans, such as factors that mediate adhesion, enzyme secretion, or hyphal formation, contribute to the disease process [4]. Particularly, the secretion of aspartic proteases (Saps), * These authors contributed equally to this work.C 2013 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.eji-journal.eu 680Donatella Pietrella et al. Eur. J. Immunol. 2013. 43: 679-692 which are encoded by a gene family with ten members, has long been recognized as a virulence-associated trait of this pathogenic yeast [5].We recently reported that various members of the Sap family, including Sap1, Sap2, Sap3, and Sap6, have different abilities to induce secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines by human monocytes via Akt/NF-κB activation. Sap1, Sap2, and Sap6 potently induced IL-1β, TNF-α, and IL-6 production. Importantly, Sapinduced cytokine production was independent of the proteolytic activity and of the optimal pH for the individual Sap activities [6]. These data suggest ...

BackgroundTh17 cells play a major role in coordinating the host defence in oropharyngeal candidiasis. In this study we investigated the involvement of the Th17 response in an animal model of vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC).MethodsTo monitor the course of infection we exploited a new in vivo imaging technique.Resultsi) The progression of VVC leads to a strong influx of neutrophils in the vagina soon after the challenge which persisted despite the resolution of infection; ii) IL-17, produced by vaginal cells, particularly CD4 T cells, was detected in the vaginal wash during the infection, reaching a maximum 14 days after the challenge; iii) The amount and kinetics of IL-23 in vaginal fluids were comparable to those in vaginal cells; iv) The inhibition of Th17 differentiation led to significant inhibition of IL-17 production with consequent exacerbation of infection; v) An increased production of βdefensin 2 was manifested in cells of infected mice. This production was strongly reduced when Th17 differentiation was inhibited and was increased by rIL-17 treatment.ConclusionsThese results imply that IL-17 and Th17, along with innate antimicrobial factors, have a role in the immune response to vaginal candidiasis.

The secretion of aspartic proteases (Saps) has long been recognized as a virulence-associated trait of the pathogenic yeast Candida albicans. In this study, we report that different recombinant Saps, including Sap1, Sap2, Sap3, and Sap6, have differing abilities to induce secretion of proinflammatory cytokines by human monocytes. In particular Sap1, Sap2, and Sap6 significantly induced interleukin-1␤ (IL-1␤), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-␣), and IL-6 production. Sap3 was able to stimulate the secretion of IL-1␤ and TNF-␣. All Saps tested were able to induce Ca 2؉ influx in monocytes. Treatment of these Saps with pepstatin A did not have any effect on cytokine secretion, indicating that their stimulatory potential was independent from their proteolytic activity. The capacity of Saps to induce inflammatory cytokine production was also independent from protease-activated receptor (PAR) activation and from the optimal pH for individual Sap activity. The interaction of Saps with monocytes induced Akt activation and phosphorylation of IB␣, which mediates translocation of NF-B into the nucleus. Overall, these results suggest that individual Sap proteins can induce an inflammatory response and that this phenomenon is independent from the pH of a specific host niche and from Sap enzymatic activity. The inflammatory response is partially dependent on Sap denaturation and is triggered by the Akt/NF-B activation pathway. Our data suggest a novel, activity-independent aspect of Saps during interactions of C. albicans with the host.

Increasing male infertility of unknown aetiology can be associated with environmental factors. Extensive use of mobile phones has exposed the general population to unprecedented levels of radiofrequency radiations (RFRs) that may adversely affect male reproductive health. Therefore, the present study investigated the effect of RFR Global System for Mobile communication (GSM) type, 900 MHz and melatonin supplementation on germ cell development during spermatogenesis. Swiss albino mice were divided into four groups. One group received RFR exposure for 3 h twice/day for 35 days and the other group received the same exposure but with melatonin ( N-acetyl-5-methoxytryptamine) (MEL; 5 mg/kg bw/day). Two other groups received only MEL or remain unexposed. Sperm head abnormality, total sperm count, biochemical assay for lipid peroxides, reduced glutathione, superoxide dismutase activity and testis histology were evaluated. Additionally, flow cytometric evaluation of germ cell subtypes and comet assay were performed in testis. Extensive DNA damage in germ cells of RFR-exposed animals along with arrest in pre-meiotic stages of spermatogenesis eventually leading to low sperm count and sperm head abnormalities were observed. Furthermore, biochemical assays revealed excess free radical generation resulting in histological and morphological changes in testis and germ cells morphology, respectively. However, these effects were either diminished or absent in RFR-exposed animals supplemented with melatonin. Hence, it can be concluded that melatonin inhibits pre-meiotic spermatogenesis arrest in male germ cells through its anti-oxidative potential and ability to improve DNA reparative pathways, leading to normal sperm count and sperm morphology in RFR-exposed animals.

Even though there are contradictory reports regarding the cellular and molecular changes induced by mobile phone emitted radiofrequency radiation (RFR), the possibility of any biological effect cannot be ruled out. In view of a widespread and extensive use of mobile phones, this study evaluates alterations in male germ cell transformation kinetics following RFR exposure and after recovery. Swiss albino mice were exposed to RFR (900 MHz) for 4 h and 8 h duration per day for 35 days. One group of animals was terminated after the exposure period, while others were kept for an additional 35 days post-exposure. RFR exposure caused depolarization of mitochondrial membranes resulting in destabilized cellular redox homeostasis. Statistically significant increases in the damage index in germ cells and sperm head defects were noted in RFR-exposed animals. Flow cytometric estimation of germ cell subtypes in mice testis revealed 2.5-fold increases in spermatogonial populations with significant decreases in spermatids. Almost fourfold reduction in spermatogonia to spermatid turnover (1C:2C) and three times reduction in primary spermatocyte to spermatid turnover (1C:4C) was found indicating arrest in the premeiotic stage of spermatogenesis, which resulted in loss of post-meiotic germ cells apparent from testis histology and low sperm count in RFR-exposed animals. Histological alterations such as sloughing of immature germ cells into the seminiferous tubule lumen, epithelium depletion and maturation arrest were also observed. However, all these changes showed recovery to varied degrees following the post-exposure period indicating that the adverse effects of RFR on mice germ cells are detrimental but reversible. To conclude, RFR exposure-induced oxidative stress causes DNA damage in germ cells, which alters cell cycle progression leading to low sperm count in mice.

It was envisaged to develop surface modified Guar Gum Nanoparticles (GGNP) with Folic acid (FA) charged with methotrexate (MTX) to target the colon specifically. The MTX loaded FA functionalized GGNP (MTX-FA-GGNP) have been prepared by emulsion crosslinking method. These surface modified nanoparticles were compared with unmodified MTX loaded GGNP (MTX-GGNP). The developed formulations were evaluated for size and size distribution, zeta potential, Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC), release profile and uptake studies. The nanoparticles have been found to have average size of 325 nm in diameter having polydispersity index (PDI) 0.177 indicating mono-disperse particles. The zeta potential of the particles was found to be -36.9 mV. The percent growth inhibition of Caco 2 cells with MTX-FA-GGNP was found to be better than MTX-GGNP indicating folate receptor mediated uptake. The MTX-GGNP protects the release of MTX in upper gastrointestinal tract while maximum release of MTX occurred in simulated colonic fluids of pH 6.8. The in vivo uptake studies revealed preferential uptake of nanoparticles formulation in the colon. These studies provide evidences that MTX-FA-GGNP holds promise to address colorectal cancer over-expressing folate receptors. This prototype formulation enjoys dual advantage of having propensity to release the drug in the colon and in the conditions of colorectal carcinoma; it could be better localized and targeted with improved therapy due to over-expression of folate receptors.

Provenance of the Oligocene Barail sandstones has been ascertained by means of petrographic and heavy mineral studies. Petrography reveals an abundance of angular to sub-rounded monocrystalline, non-undulatory quartz followed by lithic fragments. The overall composition of sandstones matches with those of sublith-arenites. The heavy mineral suite of Barail sandstones displays rounded to sub-rounded as well as euhedral / angular grains of iron oxide, zircon, tourmaline, rutile, kyanite, sillimanite and staurolite in decreasing order of abundance. Petrography coupled with heavy mineral suite suggests for a mixed provenance dominated by a sedimentary source of recycled orogenic provenance in a foreland basin setup.

The animal models available for studying the immune response to genital tract infection require induction of a pseudo estrous state, usually achieved by administration of 17-β-estradiol. In our experimental model of vaginal candidiasis, under pseudo estrus, different strains of mice were used. We observed major differences in the clearance of Candida albicans infection among the different strains, ascribable to differing susceptibility to estradiol treatment. In the early phase of infection CD1, BALB/c, C57BL/6 albino and C57BL/6 mice were colonized to similar levels, while in the late phase of infection, BALB/c mice, which are considered genetically resistant to C. albicans infection, exhibited greater susceptibility to vaginal candidiasis than CD1 and C57BL/6 albino strains of mice. This was because estradiol induced "per se" enlarged and fluid-filled uteri, more pronounced in infected mice and consistently more evident in BALB/c and C57BL/6 mice than in CD1 mice. Unlike CD1, BALB/c and C57BL/6 mice showed a heavy fungal colonization of the uterus, even though C57BL/6 mice apparently cleared C. albicans from the vagina. The presence of C. albicans in the vagina and uterus was accompanied by a heavy bacterial load. Collectively these observations prompted us to carry out a careful analysis of estradiol effects in a mouse model of vaginal infection.