Learning a second language (L2) is analogous to a journey replete with setbacks and discouragements. Given the pivotal role of communication in L2 learning, researchers have set out to identify factors that may influence L2 learners’ willingness to communicate (L2 WTC). To this end, the present comparative study attempts to investigate the role of the L2 motivational self-system and grit in learners’ L2 WTC in two different educational settings: public schools and private language institutes. L2 motivational self-system includes ideal L2 self (ILS) and ought-to L2self (OLS). Grit also comprises two lower-order constructs: perseverance of effort (POE) and consistency of interest (COI), which are examined separately in this study. The data collected through an online survey from 308 participants were analyzed using the Mann Whitney u-test, Spearman’s rho, and multiple regression analysis. The results revealed a stronger ILS, POE, and a higher level of WTC among language institute learners. In contrast, public school students showed stronger OLS and lower levels of WTC. Moreover, unlike its counterpart, COI did not display a significant correlation or predictive power with/over L2 WTC in either context. The findings suggest that low levels of ILS and lack of POE can lead to lower levels of L2 WTC.

The ubiquitous nature of metaphor in everyday life and its significance in second language learning has triggered plethoric research on the relationship between metaphor and language learning. To contribute to the still growing literature, the current study explore the effect of learner variables, namely gender and proficiency, on metaphor use in TEFL students’ writing. To achieve that objective, 27 intermediate and 23 upper-intermediate Iranian TEFL students were asked to write on an IELTS Writing Task 2 topic. Fifty essays were analyzed for metaphor use through Metaphor Identification Procedure (Pragglejaz Group in Metaphor Symb 22(1):1–39, 2007) and Vehicle Identification Procedure (Cameron in Metaphor in educational discourse, Continuum, London, 2003). The data analyzed through t-test and multiple regression analysis revealed the advantage of upper-intermediate students over intermediate students concerning metaphor use in their writing. Gender, on the other hand, did not play an influential role in the students’ metaphor use. The findings of this research and the implications they might have for the field of English language teaching will be discussed.

Although the role of emotions in English as a foreign language (EFL) learners’ willingness to communicate (WTC) has triggered abundant research in traditional, in-person language classes, little is known about how these emotions affect learners’ communication behavior in online classrooms. Adopting a mixed-method design, the present study investigated the effect of foreign language boredom (FLB) and foreign language enjoyment (FLE) on EFL learners’ L2 WTC in online classrooms. The data gathered through an online survey from 469 EFL learners were analyzed through multiple linear regression, dominance analysis, and mediation analysis. The findings revealed that FLB had a considerably strong effect on L2 WTC, although this effect was to some extent diminished by FLE, FLB overshadowed learners’ online learning experience. To gain a deeper understanding of the relationship among these variables, qualitative data was gathered from 20 participants through semi-structured interviews. The findings further supported the quantitative data and suggested that the learners believed the problems they faced in online classrooms led to boredom and discouraged them from engaging in communication. The findings are discussed in terms of implications for teachers to improve the experience of online English education.

Much of previous research on learners’ language mindset (LM) and academic engagement (AEG) was dominated by a focus on traditional in-person classrooms, while little is known about how learners’ beliefs toward language learning have affected their AEG comprised of behavioral, emotional, cognitive, and agentic engagement in the online setting. To this end, this research sought to investigate how learners’ LM influences their AEG in online classrooms and if and how this link is mediated by achievement emotions (AE) (i.e., anxiety & enjoyment). The results of PLS-PM revealed that LM positively predicted all components of AEG. While enjoyment functioned only as a mediator, which linked LM to emotional engagement, anxiety linked LM to all subcomponents of AEG. Moreover, of the two emotions investigated in this study, anxiety negatively predicted all four components of AEG, whereas enjoyment only affected emotional engagement. Based on these findings, practical implications and future research directions are presented.

Despite the treasure trove of studies on second language willingness to communicate (L2 WTC), there exists a need for more comparative studies, viewing L2 WTC from a cross-cultural standpoint. The present study was put forth to investigate how the L2 WTC of Iranian and Chinese EFL learners might vary and whether the L2 motivational self-system and language mindset could play any role in it. The data collected through an online survey from 469 Iranian and 653 Chinese EFL learners were analyzed using the Mann-Whitney u-test, Pearson’s r, and multiple regression analysis. The findings revealed that the two groups of learners did not differ significantly regarding their communication orientations. Moreover, the results indicated that Iranian and Chinese learners with a growth language mindset and vivid ideal L2 selves are more willing to communicate. Ought-to L2 self, on the other hand, negatively predicted Iranian learners’ L2 WTC while failing to predict their Chinese counterparts’ L2 WTC. The findings are discussed in terms of implications for teachers to improve L2 WTC by promoting a growth language mindset and improving the ideal L2 self.