Oxidative stress induced by inhibition of glutathione (GSH) biosynthesis with D,L-buthionine-S,R-sulfoximine (BSO) causes human microglia, human astrocytes, THP-1 cells, and U373 cells to secrete materials toxic to human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells and stimulates them to release TNF-alpha, IL-6, and nitrite ions. The effect is correlated with activation of the inflammatory pathways P38 MAP- kinase, Jun-N-terminal kinase, and NF-kappaB. The effect is reduced by adding to the medium GSH or clotrimazole (CTM), an inhibitor of Ca(2+)-influx through TRPM2 channels. It is also produced by inhibiting TRPM2 protein expression in microglia and astrocytes through introduction of its small inhibitory RNA (siRNA). TRPM2 mRNA is expressed by glial cells but not by SH-SY5Y cells. BSO in the culture medium causes an almost 3-fold increase in [Ca(2+)](i) in microglia and astrocytes over a 24-h period, which is reduced to half by the addition of CTM. The data strongly suggest that inhibiting intracellular GSH synthesis induces a neuroinflammatory response in human microglia and astrocytes, which is linked to Ca(2+) influx through TRPM2 channels. It represents a new model for inducing neuroinflammation and suggests that increasing GSH levels in glial cells may confer neuroprotection in neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer disease, which have a prominent neuroinflammatory component.
We examined the expression and pharmacological modulation of the purinergic receptor P2X7R in a C6 glioma model. Intrastriatal injection of C6 cells induced a time-dependent growth of tumor; at 2 weeks postinjection immunohistochemical analysis demonstrated higher levels of P2X7R in glioma-injected versus control vehicle-injected brains. P2X7R immunoreactivity colocalized with tumor cells and microglia, but not endogenous astrocytes. Intravenous administration of the P2X7R antagonist brilliant blue G (BBG) inhibited tumor growth in a spatially dependent manner from the C6 injection site. Treatment with BBG reduced tumor volume by 52% versus that in controls. Double immunostaining indicated that BBG treatment did not alter microgliosis, astrogliosis, or vasculature vessels in C6-injected animals. In vitro, BBG reduced the expression of P2X7R and glioma chemotaxis induced by the P2X7R ligand, 2',3'-O-(4-benzoyl-benzoyl)adenosine triphosphate (BzATP). Immunohistochemical staining of human glioblastoma tissue samples demonstrated greater expression of P2X7R compared to control nontumor samples. These results suggest that the efficacy of BBG in inhibiting tumor growth is primarily mediated by direct actions of the compound on P2X7R in glioma cells and that pharmacological inhibition of this purinergic receptor might serve as a strategy to slow the progression of brain tumors.
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