This article outlines the development and validation of the Multidimensional Motivational Climate Observation System (MMCOS). Drawing from an integration of the dimensions of the social environment emphasized within achievement goal theory and self-determination theory (as assumed within Duda's [2013] conceptualization of "empowering" and "disempowering" climates), the MMCOS was developed to enable an objective assessment of the coach-created motivational environment in sport. Study 1 supported the initial validity and reliability of the newly developed observation system. Study 2 further examined the interobserver reliability and factorial structure of the MMCOS. Study 3 explored the predictive validity of the observational system in relation to athletes' reported basic psychological need satisfaction. Overall, the results of these studies provide preliminary support for the inter- and intraobserver reliability, as well as factorial and predictive validity of the MMCOS. Suggestions for the use of this observational system in future research in sport are provided.

Adopting an integrated achievement goal (Nicholls, J. G. (1989). The competitive ethos and democratic education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.) and self-determination theory (Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The "what" and "why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11, 227-268. doi:10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01) perspective as proffered by Duda, J. L. (2013). (The conceptual and empirical foundations of empowering coaching: Setting the stage for the PAPA project. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 11, 311-318. doi:10.1080/1612197X.2013.839414), the aim of the current study was to observe empowering and disempowering features of the multidimensional motivational coaching environment in training and competition in youth sport. Seventeen grass-roots soccer coaches were observed and rated in training and competitive settings using the multidimensional motivational climate observation system (MMCOS; Smith, N., Tessier, D., Tzioumakis, Y., Quested, E., Appleton, P., Sarrazin, P., … Duda, J. L. (2015). Development and validation of the multidimensional motivational climate observation system (MMCOS). Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 37, 4-22. doi:10.1123/jsep.2014-0059). In line with our hypotheses, coaches created different motivational environments in the two contexts. More specifically, coaches were observed to create a less empowering and more disempowering environment in competition compared to in training. The observed differences were underpinned by distinctive motivational strategies used by coaches in the two contexts. Findings have implications for the assessment of the coach-created motivational environment and the promotion of quality motivation for young athletes taking part in grass-roots-level sport.

No abstract

21To date, the majority of research grounded in Achievement Goal frameworks (AGT) and 22Self-determination Theory (SDT), which has examined the coach-created motivational 23 environment and its correlates, has relied exclusively on athletes ' self-reported perceptions. 24 This limits progress in the field as objective data on real-life events could be used to further 25 identify what coaches and teachers do and say to 'motivate' their athletes and students to 26 influence their skill development, performance and well-being. Such information may help 27 inform how coaches and teachers should be trained to create more motivationally adaptive 28 environments and could help extend results derived from self-report measures. This review 29 outlines the observational systems that are currently available and the research related to 30 AGT and/or SDT-based objective assessments of motivational dimensions of the coaching 31 and physical education (PE) environment. Future research could utilise information in this 32 review to employ and/or amend one of the available observation systems to address important 33 questions related to the observed motivational environment in sport and PE. 34 36 37 38 39 40 41In this paper, we first provide a brief overview of AGT, SDT and identify key features 64 of the social environment relevant to the two theoretical perspectives. We then provide a 65 review of the observational systems that are currently available to researchers interested in 66 RUNNING HEAD: OBSERVING THE MOTIVATIONAL ENVIRONMENT 4 observing motivationally relevant dimensions of the social environment in sport and PE 67 settings. 68While we acknowledge there are contextual differences between sport and PE 69 (discussed later in the paper), both are achievement settings where individuals seek to 70 demonstrate competence and require motivation to fulfil their potential (Roberts, 2001; 71 2012). In addition, the roles and behaviours of a PE teacher and coach have considerable 72 overlap where both figures aim to educate and engage their students and athletes in an 73 attempt to promote skill development, knowledge accrual and optimise performance. From a 74 theoretical perspective, the principles of adaptive and maladaptive motivational 75 environments, as highlighted by AGT and SDT, are considered to be applicable to both sport 76 and PE contexts (see Roberts & Treasure, 2012). Sport and PE-based research, grounded in 77 AGT or SDT frameworks, has typically focused on a number of key dimensions of the 78 perceived motivational environment and these environmental dimensions have been studied 79 within different age groups, across countries and at varying competitive levels (Mageau & 80 Vallerand, 2003;Ntoumanis & Biddle, 1999;Reeve & Jang, 2006). The environmental 81 dimensions relevant to AGT and SDT will be reviewed later in the paper. Given the overlap 82 between the types of environment likely to promote or undermine motivation in both sport 83 and PE contexts, observational systems developed in both settings w...

International audienceThe coach-created motivational climate is a key determinant of athletes' welfare and degree of optimal functioning when taking part in sport. The purpose of this study, grounded in a selfdetermination theory and achievement goal theory-integrated framework, was to investigate to what extent the differences in the objective motivational climate created by the coaches involved in the European-wide "Promoting Adolescent Physical Activity" project were a function of their country affiliation (i.e. England, Greece and France). Fifty-seven coaches (55 men and 2 women) from England, Greece and France were selected to take part in the study. Each coach was videotaped during one complete training session using a digital camcorder and microphone. The recently developed Multidimensional Motivational Climate Observation System was used to code the coach-created motivational climate in terms of need-supportive and need-thwarting environmental dimensions. Results showed that (1) coaches were observed to emphasise on a more need-supportive environment than a need-thwarting one (i.e. 69.9% and 30.1% of the whole behaviours coded, respectively) and (2) although coaches' interpersonal styles varied significantly across countries, the general pattern of the coach-created environment observed in the three countries had a similar profile

Human activity in Antarctica has increased sharply in recent years. In particular during the winter months, people are exposed to long periods of isolation and confinement and an extreme physical environment that poses risks to health, well-being and performance. The present study aimed to gain a better understanding of processes contributing to psychological resilience in this context. Specifically, the study examined how the use of coping strategies changed over time, and the extent to which changes coincided with alterations in mood and sleep. Two crews (N = 27) spending approximately 10 months at the Concordia station completed the Utrecht Coping List, the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS), and a structured sleep diary at regular intervals (x 9). The results showed that several variables reached a minimum value during the midwinter period, which corresponded to the third quarter of the expedition. The effect was particularly noticeable for coping strategies (i.e., active problem solving, palliative reactions, avoidance, and comforting cognitions). The pattern of results could indicate that participants during Antarctic over-wintering enter a state of psychological hibernation as a stress coping mechanism.

The present report documents the strategies used to deal with stress during an extreme Antarctic expedition. Coping strategies identified are based on experiences shared by the leader of the Scott Expedition and co-author of the report, Ben Saunders. A variety of problemand emotion-focused techniques were utilized during the expedition and specific contextual and practical details are provided. Information offered in the article can be used to prepare future Antarctic expedition teams to manage stressors faced while undertaking extreme journeys in the higher latitudes.

No abstract