Abstract. In this contribution, we present a review of scientific research results that address seismo-hydromechanically coupled processes relevant for the development of a sustainable heat exchanger in low-permeability crystalline rock and introduce the design of the In situ Stimulation and Circulation (ISC) experiment at the Grimsel Test Site dedicated to studying such processes under controlled conditions. The review shows that research on reservoir stimulation for deep geothermal energy exploitation has been largely based on laboratory observations, large-scale projects and numerical models. Observations of full-scale reservoir stimulations have yielded important results. However, the limited access to the reservoir and limitations in the control on the experimental conditions during deep reservoir stimulations is insufficient to resolve the details of the hydromechanical processes that would enhance process understanding in a way that aids future stimulation design. Small-scale laboratory experiments provide fundamental insights into various processes relevant for enhanced geothermal energy, but suffer from (1) difficulties and uncertainties in upscaling the results to the field scale and (2) relatively homogeneous material and stress conditions that lead to an oversimplistic fracture flow and/or hydraulic fracture propagation behavior that is not representative of a heterogeneous reservoir. Thus, there is a need for intermediate-scale hydraulic stimulation experiments with high experimental control that bridge the various scales and for which access to the target rock mass with a comprehensive monitoring system is possible. The ISC experiment is designed to address open research questions in a naturally fractured and faulted crystalline rock mass at the Grimsel Test Site (Switzerland). Two hydraulic injection phases were executed to enhance the permeability of the rock mass. During the injection phases the rock mass deformation across fractures and within intact rock, the pore pressure distribution and propagation, and the microseismic response were monitored at a high spatial and temporal resolution.

High-resolution 3D geological models are crucial for underground development projects and corresponding numerical simulations with applications in e.g., tunneling, hydrocarbon exploration, geothermal exploitation and mining. Most geological models are based on sparse geological data sampled pointwise or along lines (e.g., boreholes), leading to oversimplified model geometries. In the framework of a hydraulic stimulation experiment in crystalline rock at the Grimsel Test Site, we collected geological data in 15 boreholes using a variety of methods to characterize a decameter-scale rock volume. The experiment aims to identify and understand relevant thermo-hydro-mechanical-seismic coupled rock mass responses during high-pressure fluid injections. Prior to fluid injections, we characterized the rock mass using geological, hydraulic and geophysical prospecting. The combination of methods allowed for compilation of a deterministic 3D geological analog that includes five shear zones, fracture density information and fracture locations. The model may serve as a decameter-scale analog of crystalline basement rocks, which are often targeted for enhanced geothermal systems. In this contribution, we summarize the geological data and the resulting geological interpretation.

An extensive campaign to characterize rock stresses on the decameter scale was carried out in three 18-24 m long boreholes drilled from a tunnel in foliated granite at the Grimsel Test Site, Switzerland. The survey combined stress-relief methods with hydro-fracturing (HF) tests and concomitant monitoring of induced seismicity. Hydrofracture traces at the borehole wall were visualized with impression packer tests. The microseismic clouds indicate sub-vertical southdipping HFs. Initial inversion of the overcoring strains with an isotropic rock model yielded stress tensors that disagreed with the HF and microseismic results. The discrepancy was eliminated by using a transversely-isotropic rock model, parametrized by a novel method that used numerical modelling of the in-situ biaxial cell data to determine the requisite five independent elastic parameters. The results show that stress is reasonably uniform in the rock volume that lies to the south of a shear zone that cuts the NNW of the study volume. Stress in this volume is considered to be unperturbed by structures, and has principal stress magnitudes of 13.1-14.4 MPa for σ1, 9.2-10.2 MPa for σ2, and 8.6-9.7 MPa for σ3 with σ1 plunging to the east at 30-40°.To the NNW of the uniform stress regime, the minimum principal stress declines and the principal axes rotate as the shear zone is approached. The stress perturbation is clearly associated with the shear zone, and may reflect the presence of more fragmented rock acting as a compliant inclusion, or remnant stresses arising from slip on the shear zone in the past.

No abstract

Abstract. We performed a series of 12 hydraulic stimulation experiments in a 20 × 20 × 20 m foliated, crystalline rock volume intersected by two distinct fault sets at the Grimsel Test Site, Switzerland. The goal of these experiments was to improve our understanding of stimulation processes associated with high-pressure fluid injection used for reservoir creation in enhanced or engineered geothermal systems. In the first six experiments, pre-existing fractures were stimulated to induce shear dilation and enhance permeability. Two types of shear zones were targeted for these hydroshearing experiments: i) ductile ones with intense foliation and ii) brittle-ductile ones associated with a fractured zone. The second series of six stimulations were performed in borehole intervals without natural fractures to initiate and propagate hydraulic fractures that connect the wellbore to the existing fracture network. The same injection protocol was used for all experiments within each stimulation series so that the differences observed will give insights into the effect of geology on the seismo-hydro-mechanical response rather than differences due to the injection protocols. Deformations and fluid pressure were monitored using a dense sensor network in boreholes surrounding the injection locations. Seismicity was recorded with sensitive in-situ acoustic emission sensors both in boreholes and at the tunnel walls. We observed high variability in the seismic response in terms of seismogenic indices, b-values, spatial and temporal evolution during both hydroshearing and hydrofracturing experiments, which we attribute to local geological heterogeneities. Seismicity was most pronounced for injections into the highly conductive brittle-ductile shear zones, while injectivity increase on these structures was only marginal. No significant differences between the seismic response of hydroshearing and hydrofracturing was identified, possibly because the hydrofractures interact with the same pre-existing fracture network that is reactivated during the hydroshearing experiments. Fault slip during the hydroshearing experiments was predominantly aseismic. The results of our hydraulic stimulations indicate that stimulation of short borehole intervals with limited fluid volumes (i.e., the concept of zonal insulation) may be an effective approach to limit induced seismic hazard if highly seismogenic structures can be avoided.

Abstract. As part of the In-situ Stimulation and Circulation (ISC) experiment, hydraulic fracturing (HF) tests were conducted in a moderately fractured crystalline rock mass at the Grimsel Test Site (GTS), Switzerland. The aim of these injection tests was to improve our understanding of processes associated with high-pressure fluid injection. A total of six HF experiments were performed in two inclined boreholes, where the surrounding rock mass was accessed with twelve observation boreholes, which allow high-resolution monitoring of fracture fluid pressure, strain and micro-seismicity in an exceptionally well-characterized rock mass. A similar injection protocol was used for all six experiments to investigate the complexity of the fracture propagation processes. At the borehole scale, these processes involved newly created tensile fractures intersecting the injection interval while at the cross-hole scale, the natural network of fractures dominated the propagation process. The six HF experiments can be divided into two groups based on their injection location (i.e., south or north to a brittle ductile shear zone), their similarity of injection pressures and their response to deformation and pressure propagation. The injection tests performed in the south connect upon propagation to the brittle ductile shear zone. Thus, the shear zone acts as a dominant drain and a constant pressure boundary. The experiments executed north of the shear zone, show smaller injection pressures and larger backflow during bleed-off phases. From a seismic perspective, the injection tests show high variability in seismic response independent of the location of injection. For two injection experiments, we observe re-orientation of the seismic cloud as the fracture propagated away from the wellbore. In both cases, the main propagation direction is normal to the minimum principal stress direction. The re-orientation during propagation is interpreted to be related to a strong stress heterogeneity and the intersection of natural fractures striking different than the propagating hydraulic fracture. The seismic activity was limited to about 10 m radial distance from the injection point. In contrast, strain and pressure signals reach further into the rock mass indicating that the process zone around the injection point is larger than the zone illuminated by seismic signals. Furthermore, strain signals indicate not just single fracture openings but also the propagation of multiple fractures. Transmissivities of injection intervals increase about 2–4 orders of magnitudes.

Abstract. We performed a series of 12 hydraulic stimulation experiments in a 20m×20m×20m foliated, crystalline rock volume intersected by two distinct fault sets at the Grimsel Test Site, Switzerland. The goal of these experiments was to improve our understanding of stimulation processes associated with high-pressure fluid injection used for reservoir creation in enhanced or engineered geothermal systems. In the first six experiments, pre-existing fractures were stimulated to induce shear dilation and enhance permeability. Two types of shear zones were targeted for these hydroshearing experiments: (i) ductile ones with intense foliation and (ii) brittle–ductile ones associated with a fractured zone. The second series of six stimulations were performed in borehole intervals without natural fractures to initiate and propagate hydraulic fractures that connect the wellbore to the existing fracture network. The same injection protocol was used for all experiments within each stimulation series so that the differences observed will give insights into the effect of geology on the seismo-hydromechanical response rather than differences due to the injection protocols. Deformations and fluid pressure were monitored using a dense sensor network in boreholes surrounding the injection locations. Seismicity was recorded with sensitive in situ acoustic emission sensors both in boreholes and at the tunnel walls. We observed high variability in the seismic response in terms of seismogenic indices, b values, and spatial and temporal evolution during both hydroshearing and hydrofracturing experiments, which we attribute to local geological heterogeneities. Seismicity was most pronounced for injections into the highly conductive brittle–ductile shear zones, while the injectivity increase on these structures was only marginal. No significant differences between the seismic response of hydroshearing and hydrofracturing was identified, possibly because the hydrofractures interact with the same pre-existing fracture network that is reactivated during the hydroshearing experiments. Fault slip during the hydroshearing experiments was predominantly aseismic. The results of our hydraulic stimulations indicate that stimulation of short borehole intervals with limited fluid volumes (i.e., the concept of zonal insulation) may be an effective approach to limit induced seismic hazard if highly seismogenic structures can be avoided.

No abstract