While there is increasing recognition among archaeologists of the extent to which non-agricultural societies have managed their terrestrial ecosystems, the traditional management of marine ecosystems has largely been ignored. In this paper, we bring together Indigenous ecological knowledge, coastal geomorphological observations, and archaeological data to document how Northwest Coast First Nations cultivated clams to maintain and increase productivity. We focus on “clam gardens,” walled intertidal terraces constructed to increase bivalve habitat and productivity. Our survey and excavations of clam gardens in four locations in British Columbia provide insights into the ecological and social context, morphology, construction, and first reported ages of these features. These data demonstrate the extent of traditional maricultural systems among coastal First Nations and, coupled with previously collected information on terrestrial management, challenge us to broaden our definition of “forager” as applied to Northwest Coast peoples. This study also highlights the value of combining diverse kinds of knowledge, including archaeological data, to understand the social and ecological contexts of traditional management systems.

Focal species are a critical component of conservation planning, along with representation of ecosystems, special elements and ecologically sustainable management. They warrant conservation attention because they are functionally important, wide-ranging or space-demanding, habitat-quality indicators, ‘flagship’, and/or vulnerable or special populations. A delphi survey matrix-based approach, involving regional experts in the selection of potential focal species, was applied in Nova Scotia, Canada and Maine, USA. Matrices with native species on one axis and selection characteristics on the other axis were used to summarize expert knowledge and judgment. Characteristics were related to biological traits and habitat requirements that make some species more vulnerable than others in human-modified landscapes. In Nova Scotia and Maine, 19 and 11 experts, respectively, completed the matrices, which were subsequently numerically assessed. Species with the highest scores were identified as potential focal species, including wolf, cougar, lynx, river otter, eastern pipistrelle, wood turtle, four-toed salamander, golden eagle and Atlantic salmon. Concerns remain around the lack of representation of some classes of species, subjectivity in selecting and weighting characteristics, and the relative nature of assessing species against the characteristics. Accordingly, potential focal species should be subject to verification through more rigorous and quantitative analysis and monitoring. Nonetheless, if applied with care, the matrix-based approach can provide a relatively systematic and effective way of engaging regional experts in focal species selection.

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