Forests are complex ecosystems characterized by several distinctive vertical layers with different functional properties. Measurements of CO2 fluxes by the eddy-covariance method at different heights can be used to separate sources and sinks in these layers.We used meteorological and eddy-covariance flux data gathered at 10 sites in the FLUXNET network across a wide range of forest type, structure and climate. We showed that eddy-covariance flux measurements made in the understory are problematic at night in open forests because of the build up of a strong inversion layer, but are more reliable during the day. Denser forests have higher turbulence at night in the understory because the inversion is weaker. However, the flux footprint above and below canopy is less similar than in more open forests, partly because wind direction is more deflected while entering the canopy. We showed that gross primary productivity (GPP) of the understory can reach 39% of the total canopy GPP, with an average of 14% across the studied sites. Both understory leaf area index (LAI) and light penetration through the canopy are important for understory GPP. We found that understory respiration contributed an average of 55% to ecosystem respiration, with a range of 32–79%. Understory in deciduous forests (62%) had higher contributions to ecosystem respiration than in evergreen forests (49%). Boreal and temperate forests had a mean understory respiration contribution of 61%, while semi-arid forests showed lower values (44%). The normalized understory respiration fluxes at 20 8C were negatively related to soil temperature, when differences in soil moisture across sites are taken into account. We showed evidence that drought limited the efficiency of microbial metabolic activity. Understory respiration fluxes were positively correlated with gross ecosystem primary productivity

Models and observational strategies of carbon exchange need to take into account synoptic and mesoscale transport for correct interpretation of the relation between surface fluxes and atmospheric concentration gradients.A dequate quantification of the geographical distribution of sources and sinks of C02 is still a major task with considerable implications for both our understanding of the global climate and the possible opportunities to mitigate climate change. Atmospheric measurements of C02 mixing ratios at a number of locations around the globe have helped significantly to quantify the source-sink distribu-AFFILIATIONS: DOLMAN, TOLK, AND

ABSTRACT. In recent years there has been interest in the dispersal of maize (Zea mays) pollen from crops, particularly in relation to gene flow and seed quality. We report the results of experiments that measured maize pollen dispersal from a 20 m × 20 m experimental crop. The experiments were done in a commercial farm in France during the summer of 2000. Pollen production was estimated to range from 10 4 to 2×10 6 grains per day per plant. Pollen concentrations and deposition rates decreased rapidly with distance from the crop: concentrations decreased by about a factor of 3 between 3 m and 10 m downwind of the source; deposition rates at 30 m were less than 10% of those at 1 m. Horizontal flux of pollen were estimated from pollen concentration and wind speed profiles using a mass balance approach, and ranged from 5 to 560 grains m -1 s -1 at 3 m from the source. Comparison of deposition rates estimated with the mass balance and direct measurement suggests that only a small proportion of the pollen released from the crop would have been still airborne at distances greater than 30 m downwind. Deposition velocity determined as the ratio of the deposition rate to the airborne concentration at 3 m from the source averaged 0.6 m s -1 , which is twice as large as the settling velocity for maize pollen.

ABSTRACT. The co-existence of genetically modified (GM) crops with conventional crops has become a subject of debate and inquiry. Maize (Zea mays L.) is one of the most cultivated crop plants in the world and there is a need to assess the risks of cross-pollination. Concentration and deposition rate downwind from different-sized maize crops were measured during three flowering seasons, together with micrometeorological conditions in the surrounding environment. Pollen release started once the air vapour pressure deficit (VPD) increases above 0.2 to 0.5 kPa. Moreover, the dynamics of release was correlated with the dynamics of VPD surrounding the tassels. Horizontal deposition appeared to follow a power law over short distance downwind from the source, and the dispersal distance increased with the source canopy height, and the roughness length of the downwind canopy. This work also provides a data set containing both pollen measurements and contrasting weather conditions to validate dispersal models and further investigate maize pollen dispersal processes.