A simple and accurate method for lead and cadmium determination in raw cow’s milk by electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry (ET-AAS) is described. Milk from fifteen farms near Križ in Zagreb region was sampled from the collective sample directly into plastic bottles (to avoid contamination) four times during the March of 2000. The milk samples were digested in an MLS-1200 Mega Microwave digestion system with MDR Technology. Lead and cadmium were determined directly by ET-AAS in the solutions of digested samples. Statistical analyses were performed using statistical software SAS v. 8.0. Both the farm and the date as well as their interaction (P < 0.0001) had a statistically significant influence on Pb and Cd levels in cow’s milk. Pb (0.27 ± 0.06 mg/kg DM) and Cd (0.037 ± 0.007 mg/g DM) contents were not correlated (R = 0.11) and were lower in all examined samples than the tolerance limit defined by Croatian regulations (Pb < 100 g/l and Cd < 10 g/l). Chemical and statistical analyses showed that differences between the farms were not due to feed. This implies that in order to avoid milk contamination by toxic trace elements great care of stable microclimate and all apparatuses and dishes in contact with milk should be taken.
The effect of maternal smoking as a source of exposure to toxic metals Cd and Pb on superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activity, metallothionein (MT), Cd, Pb, Cu, Fe, Mn, Se and Zn concentrations were assessed in maternal and umbilical cord blood and placenta in 74 healthy mother-newborn pairs after term delivery. Sparse discriminant analysis (SDA) was used to identify elements with the strongest impact on the SOD, GPx and MT in the measured compartments, which was then quantified by multiple regression analysis. SOD activity was lower in maternal and cord plasma, and higher in the placenta of smokers compared to non-smokers, whereas GPx activity and MT concentration did not differ between the groups. Although active smoking during pregnancy contributed to higher maternal Cd and Pb concentrations, its contribution to the variability of SOD, GPx or MT after control for other elements identified by SDA was not significant. However, an impaired balance in the antioxidant defence observed in the conditions of relatively low-to-moderate exposure levels to Cd and Pb could contribute to an increased susceptibility of offspring to oxidative stress and risk of disease development later in life. Further study on a larger number of subjects will help to better understand complex interactions between exposure to toxic elements and oxidative stress related to maternal cigarette smoking.
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are persistent pollutants, harmful to human health, which enter the human body mainly through food and bind to body fat. For these reasons their use in most countries is prohibited. Human milk has an advantage over other types of human samples in measuring human exposure to PCBs, as it is obtained with non-invasive sampling methods. In Europe, including Croatia, PCB levels have been monitored for many years. This review summarises PCB trends in human milk across Europe. The trend is generally downward, with higher levels prevailing in urban areas near industrial plants. The highest PCB levels were reported in the Czech Republic and Slovakia.
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