BackgroundThe comorbidity of mood and anxiety disorders (MD and AD) with substance use disorders (SUD) is common. One explanation for this comorbidity is the self‐medication hypothesis, which posits that individuals with MD or AD use substances to cope with the difficult symptoms associated with the disorder. Over time, self‐medication (SM) can develop into an independent SUD. This narrative review will present the prevalence and correlates of SM with alcohol and/or drugs for MD and AD and the relationship between SM and subsequent SUD using both cross‐sectional and longitudinal epidemiological data.MethodsScopus and PsycINFO were searched from January 1997 to April 2018 to identify original research articles that examined the prevalence and correlates of SM and the temporal relationship between MD/AD and SUD in the general population (n = 22).ResultsThe prevalence of SM with alcohol and/or drugs among those with MD or AD ranged from 21.9% to 24.1%. Male sex, younger age, being separated, divorced or widowed, and being Caucasian were characteristics associated with higher proportions of respondents endorsing SM with alcohol/drugs for MD and AD. Longitudinal data supports the temporal onset of primary MD/AD and secondary SUD among those who self‐report SM.ConclusionProviding and promoting alternate coping strategies for those with MD/AD may reduce SM, the development of SUD, and the comorbidity of MD/AD with SUD. The concurrent treatment of MD/AD and substance use is the current “gold standard” model of care, and the results of this review support its use.

WHAT'S KNOWN ON THIS SUBJECT: Physical punishment is associated with aggression, delinquency, and internalizing conditions in childhood, as well as a range of Axis I mental disorders in adulthood. More research is needed on the possible long-term relationship between physical punishment and mental health.WHAT THIS STUDY ADDS: To our knowledge, this is the first nationally representative examination of physical punishment and a range of Axis I and II disorders, gender interactions, and proportion of mental disorders in the general population that may be attributable to physical punishment. abstract BACKGROUND: The use of physical punishment is controversial. Few studies have examined the relationship between physical punishment and a wide range of mental disorders in a nationally representative sample. The current research investigated the possible link between harsh physical punishment (ie, pushing, grabbing, shoving, slapping, hitting) in the absence of more severe child maltreatment (ie, physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, physical neglect, emotional neglect, exposure to intimate partner violence) and Axis I and II mental disorders. RESULTS: Harsh physical punishment was associated with increased odds of mood disorders, anxiety disorders, alcohol and drug abuse/ dependence, and several personality disorders after adjusting for sociodemographic variables and family history of dysfunction (adjusted odds ratio: 1.36-2.46). Approximately 2% to 5% of Axis I disorders and 4% to 7% of Axis II disorders were attributable to harsh physical punishment. METHODS:CONCLUSIONS: Harsh physical punishment in the absence of child maltreatment is associated with mood disorders, anxiety disorders, substance abuse/dependence, and personality disorders in a general population sample. These findings inform the ongoing debate around the use of physical punishment and provide evidence that harsh physical punishment independent of child maltreatment is related to mental disorders.

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BACKGROUND: The use of physical punishment is controversial. No studies have comprehensively examined the relationship between physical punishment and several physical health conditions in a nationally representative sample. The current study investigated possible associations between harsh physical punishment (ie, pushing, grabbing, shoving, slapping, and hitting) in the absence of more severe child maltreatment (ie, physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, physical neglect, emotional neglect, and exposure to intimate partner violence) and several physical health conditions. METHODS: Data were from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions collected in 2004 and 2005 (n = 34 226 in the current analysis). The survey was conducted with a representative US adult population sample (20 years or older). Eight past year physical health condition categories were assessed. Models were adjusted for sociodemographic variables, family history of dysfunction, and Axis I and II mental disorders. RESULTS: Harsh physical punishment was associated with higher odds of cardiovascular disease (borderline significance), arthritis, and obesity after adjusting for sociodemographic variables, family history of dysfunction, and Axis I and II mental disorders (adjusted odds ratios ranged from 1.20 to 1.30). CONCLUSIONS: Harsh physical punishment in the absence of child maltreatment is associated with some physical health conditions in a general population sample. These findings inform the ongoing debate around the use of physical punishment and provide evidence that harsh physical punishment independent of child maltreatment is associated with a higher likelihood of physical health conditions.

More than 40% of US military veterans have a life-time history of alcohol use disorder. Veterans with a life-time history of alcohol use disorder have substantial comorbid psychiatric burden, including elevated rates of suicidal ideation and attempts. Certain socio-demographic (e.g. younger age, male sex, lower education) and clinical (e.g. trauma burden, history of depression) characteristics are associated with increased risk of AUD.

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BackgroundPhysical punishment of children is an important public health concern. Yet, few studies have examined how physical punishment is related to other types of child maltreatment and violence across the lifespan. Therefore, the objective of the current study was to examine if harsh physical punishment (i.e., being pushed, grabbed, shoved, hit, and/or slapped without causing marks, bruises, or injury) is associated with an increased likelihood of more severe childhood maltreatment (i.e., physical abuse, emotional abuse, sexual abuse, physical neglect, emotional neglect, and exposure to intimate partner violence (IPV)) in childhood and perpetration or victimization of IPV in adulthood.MethodsData were drawn from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions collected in 2004 to 2005 (n = 34,402, response rate = 86.7%), a representative United States adult sample.ResultsHarsh physical punishment was associated with increased odds of childhood maltreatment, including emotional abuse, sexual abuse, physical abuse, physical neglect, emotional neglect, and exposure to IPV after adjusting for sociodemographic factors, family history of dysfunction, and other child maltreatment types (range 1.6 to 26.6). Harsh physical punishment was also related to increased odds of experiencing IPV in adulthood (range 1.4 to 1.7).ConclusionsIt is important for parents and professionals working with children to be aware that pushing, grabbing, shoving, hitting, or slapping children may increase the likelihood of emotional abuse, sexual abuse, physical abuse, physical neglect, emotional neglect, and exposure to IPV in childhood and also experiencing IPV victimization and/or perpetration in later adulthood.