In terms of the process of air purification, a lot of attention has been devoted to trees and shrubs. Little attention has been paid to herbaceous vegetation from the lower forest layers. Urban forests are often located on the outskirts of cities and surround exit roads where there is heavy traffic, generating particulate matter (PM) pollution. The aim of this study was to investigate the spread of PM from the road traffic in the air and to investigate how individual layers of urban forests accumulate PM. We conducted comparative analyses of PM accumulation on plants in five zones away from the road, into the forest, in the air, and in four vegetation layers: mosses, herbaceous plants, shrubs and trees. The results show that all forest layers accumulate PM. We show that PM is very efficiently accumulated by herbaceous plants growing along roadsides, and that the PM that was not deposited on herbaceous plants was accumulated by trees and shrubs. With increasing distance from the road into the forest, the PM content on herbaceous plants decreased and the accumulation on trees and shrubs increased. We estimated that PM concentration in the air dropped significantly in the front line of the trees, but it was still detectable up to 50 m into the forest. The results presented herein show that meadow vegetation and urban forests play a very important role in air purification. Our results provide a better understanding of the complexity of urban forest interactions and provide the basis for better planning of urban greenery.
Zachodzące procesy globalizacyjne skutkują nasilaniem się konkurencji nie tylko na poziomie przedsiębiorstw, lecz także państw i regionów. Zjawisko to dotyczy m.in. turystyki. Regiony rywalizują o turystów nie tylko z są-siednimi obszarami, ale nawet z tymi, które leżą po drugiej stronie globu (BUHALIS, EGGER, red. 2008). Proces ten wymaga identyfikacji mocnych stron regionu i wypracowania przewagi konkurencyjnej, umożliwiającej wyróż-nienie obszaru spośród pozostałych. Dążenie do rozwoju turystyki ma o tyle duże znaczenie, że nawet jeżeli nie jest ona dominującym sektorem lokalnej gospodarki, to jej rozwój generuje wiele pozytywnych efektów, zarówno gospodarczych, jak i społecznych (GOELDNER, RITCHIE 2003).Konkurowanie na arenie międzynarodowej w dużym stopniu dotyczy miast, które rywalizują nie tylko o turystów, ale też o inwestorów, przedsię-biorców i nowych rezydentów. Mogą w tym pomóc wydarzenia sportowe oraz formy aktywności z zakresu turystyki biznesowej, które przyczyniają się do tworzenia przyjaznego otoczenia zarówno dla mieszkańców, jak i dla biznesu. Dlatego obecnie wiele miast zabiega o organizację dużych imprez sportowych (GETZ 2003) lub międzynarodowych spotkań stowarzyszeń czy mniejszych "eventów", a wręcz część jednostek przestrzennych opiera budohttp://dx
Purpose. (1) Measuring the economic and tourist potential of metropolitan areas recognized as world/global cities; (2) determining the intensity of the relationship between tourism potential and economic potential of these cities; (3) proposing a classification of the world’s tourist cities. Method. Multicriterial ranking method based on secondary sources in the form of cities’ rankings characterized by their tourist and economic potential; measuring the relationship between their tourism and economic potential using the Pearson correlation coefficient. Findings. The study revealed the ranking of 22 world’s tourist cities, led by London, Paris and New York. The strong association between the tourist and economic potential of the cities was confirmed. Research and conclusion limitations. The quality of the sources, limited objectivity of the source selection and the ranking method used; the generalized nature of the results. Practical implications. Practical verification of the descriptive concept of world tourism cities proposed by R. Maitland and P. Newman [2009]; proposing the authors’ method of measuring the degree of internationalization of city tourism function. Originality. The paper proposes a ranking of the world’s tourist cities and analyses the tourism potential of cities in the context of their economic competitiveness. Type of paper. Theoretical/empirical study.
Purpose. The aim of this paper is to identify the transaction costs in the meetings industry and to state, howa convention bureau can reduce these costs. Methods. The analysis of the transaction costs in the meetings industry and the impact of the convention bureau on them was based on a review of literature. Findings. A onvention bureau mostly influences the market and public transaction costs as an institution forming an institutional arrangement and creating the institutional environment. The convention bureau has the strongest impact on reducing transaction costs at the first stage – before winning the right fo ar city to host a meeting and making transactions. Research and conclusions limitations. The findings were based on analysis of literature, therefore, the results require empirical verification. Practical implications. Identification of transaction costs will help to understand processes in the meetings industry and enable comparison of different institutional arrangements, considering the convention bureau’s activity. It is particularly important in Poland, where these institutions have been operating for a relatively short period of time, and their forms and actions have not yet been regulated by law. Originality. There are many publications considering transaction costs in tourism and none about this problem in the meetings industry. Therefore, this paper fills the the knowledge gap regarding the presented topic. Type of paper. A theoretical study.
Streszczenie: Celem artykułu jest określenie, jakie role odgrywają convention bureaux w lokalnej branży spotkań, w podziale na instytucje funkcjonujące w miastach o różnej liczbie spotkań międzynarodowych (wg rankingu ICCA). Na podstawie analizy literatury stwierdzono, że ta instytucja powinna odgrywać pięć kluczowych ról: agenta, rzecznika, koordynatora, lidera i twórcy wizerunku. Postawiono hipotezę, że w miastach będących liderami w rankingu ICCA convention bureau łączy powyższe role, natomiast w miastach o niewielkiej liczbie spotkań opisywany podmiot koncentruje się głównie na roli agenta. Realizacja celu była możliwa dzięki przeprowadzeniu międzynarodowego badania wśród osób zarządzających convention bureaux w 73 miastach. Kwestionariusz przesłano drogą mailową, a późniejszą analizę danych przeprowadzono przy pomocy metody IPA (Importance-Performance Analysis). Ostatecznie hipoteza została zweryfikowana negatywnie.
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