Significant gender differences are 1 observed on primary school students' perception of self-efficacy 2 and test anxiety in mathematics. Girls perceive themselves to be 3 significantly worse than boys in mathematics and report higher 4 test anxiety toward mathematics exams. Gender differences in 5 self-efficacy become more pronounced as students grow up, and 6 test anxiety increases for all students. However, the present study 7 shows that teachers' do not perceive differences in self-efficacy 8 in mathematics between boys and girls. 9 Background: The low presence of women in science, technol-10 ogy, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) might be explained 11 by the attitude of young students toward mathematics. Different 12 studies show that girls are less interested in STEM areas than 13 boys during secondary school. A study on the reasons for this 14 fact pointed out that the early years of education can provide 15 a relevant insight to reverse the situation. 16 Research Questions: Is there any age-dependent gender differ-17 ence in primary school students in aspects related to mathemat-18 ics? Are teachers aware of students' perceptions? 19 Methodology: This work presents a study of over 2000 pri-20 mary school students (6-12 years old) and 200 teachers in 21 Aragón (Spain). The study consists of a survey on aspects that 22 influence the experience of female and male students with math-23 ematics and Spanish language for comparison purposes and 24 teacher's awareness of students' perception. 25 Findings: The present study shows that during primary school, 26 girls are more likely to experiment a negative attitude toward 27 mathematics than boys as they grow up, and teachers may not 28 perceive girls' situation.
The development of phonological awareness, i.e. the metacognitive skill that allows thinking and manipulating the language structure, from an early age is mandatory for the acquisition of literacy skills. Multisensory stimulation, curiosity and interest are fundamental for learning. In doing so, Communication Technologies have a key role because a learning-oriented use can encourage current digital natives' interest and thinking. This paper presents a game with tangible technology designed to both intervention and diagnostic, formative and summative evaluation. The user experience was carried out during two weeks through a multiple case study with four kindergarten children. A multimedia adventure game was presented in which they had to solve phonological awareness challenges through the manipulation of tangible technology to achieve the final goal. The observation was recorded in the designed evaluation model, allowing the analysis of pre-and post-intervention data after the triangulation of data for subsequent qualitative analysis. The results show an improvement in phonological awareness, as well as the gamified experience marks. These promising outcomes support the use of such methodologies to a learner-centered education model.
There are many underground applications based on magnetic fields generated by an oscillating magnetic source. For them, a magnetic dipole in a three‐layered region with upper semi‐infinite air layer can be a convenient idealization used for their planning, development, and operation. Solutions are in the form of the well‐known Sommerfeld integral expressions that can be evaluated by numerical methods. A set of field expressions to be numerically evaluated by an efficient algorithm are not collected comprehensively yet, or at least in a directly usable form. In this paper, the explicit magnetic field solutions for the vertical magnetic dipole and the horizontal magnetic dipole for a general source‐observer location are derived from the Hertz vector. They can be properly combined to model the problem of a tilted magnetic dipole source for horizontally or inclined stratified media. As a result, a complete set of integral equations of the Sommerfeld type valid from the near zone to the far zone are formulated. A method for numerical evaluation of the field expressions for high accurate computations is described. The numerical results are validated using the finite element method for all the possible source‐receiver configurations and three well‐spanned frequencies of typical subsurface applications. Both numerical solutions agree according to the normalized root‐mean‐square error‐based fit metric. Numerical results for two cases of study are presented to see its usefulness for subsurface applications. A MATLAB implementation of the mathematical description outlined in this paper and the proposed evaluation method is freely available for download.
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