Quercus rubra has been introduced in Europe since the end of the 17th century. It is widely distributed today across this continent and considered invasive in some countries. Here, we investigated the distribution of genetic diversity of both native and introduced populations with the aim of tracing the origin of introduced populations. A large sampling of 883 individuals from 73 native and 38 European locations were genotyped at 69 SNPs. In the natural range, we found a continuous geographic gradient of variation with a predominant latitudinal component. We explored the existence of ancestral populations by performing Bayesian clustering analysis and found support for two or three ancestral genetic clusters. Approximate Bayesian Computations analyses based on these two or three clusters support recent extensive secondary contacts between them, suggesting that present-day continuous genetic variation resulted from recent admixture. In the introduced range, one main genetic cluster was not recovered in Europe, suggesting that source populations were preferentially located in the northern part of the natural distribution. However, our results cannot refute the introduction of populations from the southern states that did not survive in Europe.

December 2016 ECOLOGICAL RESTORATION 34:4• 297 ABSTRACTAcer negundo (boxelder maple) is a North American native tree species that currently invades riparian and disturbed areas in Europe, affecting both bank stability and ecosystem biodiversity. As a response to managers' requests, we aimed at finding an eco-friendly method which would locally remove this species and help habitat restoration. Four control methods were tested on A. negundo adults and saplings from stands located in three experimental sites along different watercourses in Southwestern France: girdling, low cutting, high cutting, and cutting followed by the application of juglone (a natural allelopathic substance from walnut tree leaves). Mortality and resprout production on the treated A. negundo individuals were assessed during two years following the application of the control methods. Girdling was the most efficient method as it significantly induced higher mortality rates compared to the others (65 vs 15% of dead A. negundo two years after treatment administration). When healing emerged on trunks, yearly repeated girdling was required to reach full success. None of the control methods significantly reduced resprout production; not even the application of juglone. Girdling is the most recommended method to kill and remove A. negundo at a local scale in invaded natural habitats. Considering that A. negundo benefits from increases in light availability to outcompete native species, we further recommend removing seedlings from understories when applying girdling on adult and sapling individuals in order to optimize restoration conditions in natural stands and improve native species re-establishment.

Description of the subject. Quercus rubra L. is considered an invasive species in several European countries. However, little is known about its dispersal in the introduced range. Objectives. We investigated the significance of animal dispersal of Q. rubra acorns on the ground by vertebrates in its introduced range, and identified the animal species involved. Method. During two consecutive autumns, the removal of acorns from Q. rubra and from a native oak was assessed weekly in forest sites in Belgium. We used automated detection camera traps to identify the animals that removed acorns. Results. Quercus rubra acorns were removed by wood mice (Apodemus sylvaticus L.), red squirrels (Sciurus vulgaris L.), rats (Rattus sp.), and wild boars (Sus scrofa L.). The two former are scatter-hoarding rodents and can be considered potential dispersers. Conclusions. Dispersal of Q. rubra acorns in Western Europe by scatter-hoarding animals may help the species increasingly colonize forest ecosystems.