It has been known for decades that the observed number of baryons in the local Universe falls about 30-40 per cent short of the total number of baryons predicted by Big Bang nucleosynthesis, as inferred from density fluctuations of the cosmic microwave background and seen during the first 2-3 billion years of the Universe in the so-called 'Lyman α forest' (a dense series of intervening H I Lyman α absorption lines in the optical spectra of background quasars). A theoretical solution to this paradox locates the missing baryons in the hot and tenuous filamentary gas between galaxies, known as the warm-hot intergalactic medium. However, it is difficult to detect them there because the largest by far constituent of this gas-hydrogen-is mostly ionized and therefore almost invisible in far-ultraviolet spectra with typical signal-to-noise ratios. Indeed, despite large observational efforts, only a few marginal claims of detection have been made so far. Here we report observations of two absorbers of highly ionized oxygen (O VII) in the high-signal-to-noise-ratio X-ray spectrum of a quasar at a redshift higher than 0.4. These absorbers show no variability over a two-year timescale and have no associated cold absorption, making the assumption that they originate from the quasar's intrinsic outflow or the host galaxy's interstellar medium implausible. The O VII systems lie in regions characterized by large (four times larger than average ) galaxy overdensities and their number (down to the sensitivity threshold of our data) agrees well with numerical simulation predictions for the long-sought warm-hot intergalactic medium. We conclude that the missing baryons have been found.

Context. A significant fraction of the predicted baryons remain undetected in the local Universe. We adopted the common assumption that a large fraction of the missing baryons correspond to the hot (log T(K) = 5.5–7) phase of the warm-hot intergalactic medium (WHIM). We base our missing baryons search on the scenario whereby the WHIM has been heated up via accretion shocks and galactic outflows, and it is concentrated towards the filaments of the cosmic web. Aims. Our aim is to improve the observational search for the poorly detected hot WHIM. Methods. We detected the filamentary structure within the EAGLE hydrodynamical simulation by applying the Bisous formalism to the galaxy distribution. To test the reliability of our results, we used the MMF/NEXUS+ classification of the large-scale environment of the dark matter component in EAGLE. We then studied the spatio-thermal distribution of the hot baryons within the extracted filaments. Results. While the filaments occupy only ≈5% of the full simulation volume, the diffuse hot intergalactic medium in filaments amounts to ≈23%−25% of the total baryon budget, or ≈79%−87% of all the hot WHIM. The optimal filament sample, with a missing baryon mass fraction of ≈82%, is obtained by selecting Bisous filaments with a high galaxy luminosity density. For these filaments, we derived analytic formulae for the radial gas density and temperature profiles, consistent with recent Planck Sunyaev-Zeldovich and cosmic microwave background lensing observations within the central r ≈ 1 Mpc. Conclusions. Results from the EAGLE simulation suggest that the missing baryons are strongly concentrated towards the filament axes. Since the filament finding methods used here are applicable to galaxy surveys, a large fraction of the missing baryons can be localised by focusing the observational efforts on the central ∼1 Mpc regions of the filaments. To optimise the observational signal, it is beneficial to focus on the filaments with the highest galaxy luminosity densities detected in the optical data.

We use the EAGLE cosmological, hydrodynamical simulations to predict the column density and equivalent width distributions of intergalactic O vii (E = 574 eV) and O viii (E = 654 eV) absorbers at low redshift. These two ions are predicted to account for 40 % of the gas-phase oxygen, which implies that they are key tracers of cosmic metals. We find that their column density distributions evolve little at observable column densities from redshift 1 to 0, and that they are sensitive to AGN feedback, which strongly reduces the number of strong (column density N 10 16 cm −2 ) absorbers. The distributions have a break at N ∼ 10 16 cm −2 , corresponding to overdensities of ∼ 10 2 , likely caused by the transition from sheet/filament to halo gas. Absorption systems with N 10 16 cm −2 are dominated by collisionally ionized O vii and O viii, while the ionization state of oxygen at lower column densities is also influenced by photoionization. At these high column densities, O vii and O viii arising in the same structures probe systematically different gas temperatures, meaning their line ratio does not translate into a simple estimate of temperature. While O vii and O viii column densities and covering fractions correlate poorly with the H i column density at N H I 10 15 cm −2 , O vii and O viii column densities are higher in this regime than at the more common, lower H i column densities. The column densities of O vi and especially Ne viii, which have strong absorption lines in the UV, are good predictors of the strengths of O vii and O viii absorption and can hence aid in the detection of the X-ray lines.

Davies et al. (2019) established that for L * galaxies the fraction of baryons in the circumgalactic medium (CGM) is inversely correlated with the mass of their central supermassive black holes (BHs) in the EAGLE hydrodynamic simulation. The interpretation is that, over time, a more massive BH has provided more energy to transport baryons beyond the virial radius, which additionally reduces gas accretion and star formation. We continue this research by focusing on the relationship between the 1) BH masses, 2) physical and observational properties of the CGM, and 3) galaxy colours for Milky Way-mass systems. The ratio of the cumulative BH feedback energy over the gaseous halo binding energy is a strong predictor of the CGM gas content, with BHs injecting 10× the binding energy resulting in gas-poor haloes. Observable tracers of the CGM, including C iv, O vi, and H i absorption line measurements, are found to be effective tracers of the total z ∼ 0 CGM halo mass. We use high-cadence simulation outputs to demonstrate that BH feedback pushes baryons beyond the virial radius within 100 Myr timescales, but that CGM metal tracers take longer (0.5 − 2.5 Gyr) to respond. Secular evolution of galaxies results in blue, star-forming or red, passive populations depending on the cumulative feedback from BHs. The reddest quartile of galaxies with M * = 10 10.2−10.7 M (median u − r = 2.28) has a CGM mass that is 2.5× lower than the bluest quartile (u − r = 1.59). We propose strategies for observing the predicted lower CGM column densities and covering fractions around galaxies hosting more massive BHs using the Cosmic Origins Spectrograph on Hubble.

We simulate stacked observations of nearby hot X-ray coronae associated with galaxies in the EAGLE and Illustris-TNG hydrodynamic simulations. A forward modeling pipeline is developed to predict 4year eROSITA observations and stacked image analysis, including the effects of instrumental and astrophysical backgrounds. We propose an experiment to stack z ≈ 0.01 galaxies separated by specific star-formation rate (sSFR) to examine how the hot (T ≥ 10 6 K) circumgalactic medium (CGM) differs for high-and low-sSFR galaxies. The simulations indicate that the hot CGM of low-mass (M * ≈ 10 10.5 M ), high-sSFR (defined as the top one-third ranked by sSFR) central galaxies will be detectable to a galactocentric radius r ≈ 30 − 50 kpc. Both simulations predict lower luminosities at fixed stellar mass for the low-sSFR galaxies (the lower third of sSFR) with Illustris-TNG predicting 3× brighter coronae around high-sSFR galaxies than EAGLE. Both simulations predict detectable emission out to r ≈ 150 − 200 kpc for stacks centered on high-mass (M * ≈ 10 11.0 M ) galaxies, with EAGLE predicting brighter X-ray halos. The extended soft X-ray luminosity correlates strongly and positively with the mass of circumgalactic gas within the virial radius (f CGM ). Prior analyses of both simulations have established that f CGM is reduced by expulsive feedback driven mainly by black hole growth, which quenches galaxy growth by inhibiting replenishment of the ISM. Both simulations predict that eROSITA stacks should not only conclusively detect and resolve the hot CGM around L * galaxies for the first time, but provide a powerful probe of how the baryon cycle operates, for which there remains an absence of consensus between state-of-the-art simulations.

We use the EAGLE cosmological simulation to study the distribution of baryons, and FUV (O vi), EUV (Ne viii) and X-ray (O vii, O viii, Ne ix, and Fe xvii) line absorbers, around galaxies and haloes of mass $\, \rm {M}_{\rm {200c}}= 10^{11}$–$10^{14.5} \, \rm {M}_{\odot }$ at redshift 0.1. EAGLE predicts that the circumgalactic medium (CGM) contains more metals than the interstellar medium across halo masses. The ions we study here trace the warm-hot, volume-filling phase of the CGM, but are biased towards temperatures corresponding to the collisional ionization peak for each ion, and towards high metallicities. Gas well within the virial radius is mostly collisionally ionized, but around and beyond this radius, and for O vi, photo-ionization becomes significant. When presenting observables we work with column densities, but quantify their relation with equivalent widths by analysing virtual spectra. Virial-temperature collisional ionization equilibrium ion fractions are good predictors of column density trends with halo mass, but underestimate the diversity of ions in haloes. Halo gas dominates the highest column density absorption for X-ray lines, but lower-density gas contributes to strong UV absorption lines from O vi and Ne viii. Of the O vii (O viii) absorbers detectable in an Athena X-IFU blind survey, we find that 41 (56) per cent arise from haloes with $\, \rm {M}_{\rm {200c}}= 10^{12.0 \rm {-}13.5} \, \rm {M}_{\odot }$. We predict that the X-IFU will detect O vii (O viii) in 77 (46) per cent of the sightlines passing $\, \rm {M}_{\star }= 10^{10.5 \rm {-}11.0} \, \rm {M}_{\odot }$ galaxies within $100 \, \rm {pkpc}$ (59 (82) per cent for $\, \rm {M}_{\star }> 10^{11.0} \, \rm {M}_{\odot }$). Hence, the X-IFU will probe covering fractions comparable to those detected with the Cosmic Origins Spectrograph for O vi.

The relationship between galaxies and the state/chemical enrichment of the warm-hot intergalactic medium (WHIM) expected to dominate the baryon budget at low-z provides sensitive constraints on structure formation and galaxy evolution models. We present a deep redshift survey in the field of 1ES1553+113, a blazar with a unique combination of UV+X-ray spectra for surveys of the circum-/intergalactic medium (CGM/IGM). Nicastro et al. (2018) reported the detection of two O VII WHIM absorbers at z = 0.4339 and 0.3551 in its spectrum, suggesting that the WHIM is metal-rich and sufficient to close the missing baryons problem. Our survey indicates that the blazar is a member of a z = 0.433 group and that the higher-z O VII candidate arises from its intragroup medium. The resulting bias precludes its use in baryon censuses. The z = 0.3551 candidate occurs in an isolated environment 630 kpc from the nearest galaxy (with stellar mass log M * /M ≈ 9.7) which we show is unexpected for the WHIM. Finally, we characterize the galactic environments of broad H I Lyα absorbers (Doppler widths of b = 40 − 80 km s −1 ; T 4 × 10 5 K) which provide metallicity independent WHIM probes. On average, broad Lyα absorbers are ≈2× closer to the nearest luminous (L > 0.25L * ) galaxy (700 kpc) than narrow (b < 30 km s −1 ; T 4 × 10 5 K) ones (1300 kpc) but ≈2× further than O VI absorbers (350 kpc). These observations suggest that gravitational collapse heats portions of the IGM to form the WHIM but with feedback that does not enrich the IGM far beyond galaxy/group halos to levels currently observable in UV/X-ray metal lines.

We describe a new approach to studying the intergalactic and circumgalactic medium in the local Universe: direct detection through narrow-band imaging of ultra-low surface brightness visible-wavelength line emission. We use the hydrodynamical cosmological simulation EAGLE to investigate the expected brightness of this emission at low redshift (z 0.2). Hα emission in extended halos (analogous to the extended Lyα halos/blobs detected around galaxies at high redshifts) has a surface brightness of 700 photons cm −2 sr −1 s −1 out to ∼100 kpc. Mock observations show that the Dragonfly Telephoto Array, equipped with state-of-the-art narrow-band filters, could directly image these structures in exposure times of ∼10 hours. Hα fluorescence emission from this gas can be used to place strong constraints on the local ultra-violet background, and on gas flows around galaxies. Detecting Hα emission from the diffuse intergalactic medium (the "cosmic web") is beyond current capabilities, but would be possible with a hypothetical 1000-lens Dragonfly array.