Single-atom catalysts with full utilization of metal centers can bridge the gap between molecular and solid-state catalysis. Metal-nitrogen-carbon materials prepared via pyrolysis are promising single-atom catalysts but often also comprise metallic particles. Here, we pyrolytically synthesize a Co–N–C material only comprising atomically dispersed cobalt ions and identify with X-ray absorption spectroscopy, magnetic susceptibility measurements and density functional theory the structure and electronic state of three porphyrinic moieties, CoN4C12, CoN3C10,porp and CoN2C5. The O2 electro-reduction and operando X-ray absorption response are measured in acidic medium on Co–N–C and compared to those of a Fe–N–C catalyst prepared similarly. We show that cobalt moieties are unmodified from 0.0 to 1.0 V versus a reversible hydrogen electrode, while Fe-based moieties experience structural and electronic-state changes. On the basis of density functional theory analysis and established relationships between redox potential and O2-adsorption strength, we conclude that cobalt-based moieties bind O2 too weakly for efficient O2 reduction.

Recent non-precious-metal catalysts (NPMCs) show promise to replace in the future platinum-based catalysts currently needed for the electroreduction of oxygen (ORR) in proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs). Among NPMCs, the most mature subclass of materials is prepared via the pyrolysis of metal (Fe and Co), nitrogen, and carbon precursors (labeled as metal–NC). Such materials often comprise different types of nitrogen groups and metal species, from atomically dispersed metal ions coordinated to nitrogen to metallic or metal–carbide particles, partially or completely embedded in graphene shells. While disentangling the different contributions of these species to the initial ORR activity of metal–NC catalysts with multidunous active sites is complex, following the fate of these different active sites during electrochemical aging is even more difficult. To shed light onto this, herein, six metal–NC catalysts were synthesized and characterized before/after aging with two different accelerated stress tests (AST) simulating PEMFC cathode operating conditions either in steady-state or transient conditions. The samples differed from each other by the nature of the metal (Fe or Co), the metal content, and the heating mode applied during pyrolysis. Catalysts featuring either only atomically dispersed metal-ion sites (metal–N x C y ) or only metal nanoparticles encapsulated in the carbon matrix (metal@N–C) were obtained after pyrolysis of catalyst precursors containing 0.5 or 5.0 wt % of metal, respectively. All six catalysts showed high beginning-of-life ORR mass activity, but the ASTs revealed marked differences in their ORR activity at end-of-life. After the load-cycling AST (10000 cycles), metal–NC catalysts with metal–N x C y sites retained most of their initial activity at 0.8 V (60–100%), while those with metal@N–C particles retained only a small fraction of initial activity (10–20%). Metal–NC catalysts with metal–N x C y sites lost only 25% of their initial ORR activity after 30000 load cycles at 80 °C, thereby reaching the 2020 stability target defined by US Department of Energy. After 10000 start-up/shut-down cycles, no catalyst showed measurable ORR activity at 0.8 V. However, after 1000 start-up/shut-down cycles, most of the metal–NC catalysts initially comprising metal–N x C y sites showed measurable ORR activity at 0.8 V, while those initially comprising metal@N–C particles did not. Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy and Raman spectroscopy measurements of the cycled rotating disk electrodes revealed that demetalation of the catalytic centers and corrosion of the carbon matrix are the main causes of ORR activity decay during load-cycling and start-up/shut-down cycling, respectively. In contrast to what could have been intuitively expected, the metal–N x C y sites are more robust to both demetalation and carbon corrosion than metal@N–C sites.

Fuel cells efficiently convert chemical into electric energy, with promising application for clean transportation. In proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs), rare platinum metal catalyzes today the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) while iron(cobalt)-nitrogen-carbon materials (Fe(Co)-N-C) are a promising alternative. Their active sites can be classified as atomically dispersed metal-ions coordinated to nitrogen atoms (MeNxCy moieties) or nitrogen functionalities (possibly influenced by sub-surface metallic particles). While their durability is a recognized challenge, its rational improvement is impeded by insufficient understanding of operando degradation mechanisms. Here, we show that FeNxCy moieties in a representative Fe-N-C catalyst are structurally stable but electrochemically unstable when exposed in acidic medium to H2O2, the main ORR byproduct. We reveal that exposure to H2O2 leaves iron-based catalytic sites untouched but decreases their turnover frequency (TOF) via oxidation of the carbon surface, leading to weakened O2 binding on iron-based sites. Their TOF is recovered upon electrochemical reduction of the carbon surface, demonstrating the proposed deactivation mechanism. Our results reveal a hitherto unsuspected deactivation mechanism during ORR in acidic medium. This study identifies the N-doped carbon surface as Achilles' heel during ORR catalysis in PEMFCs. Observed in acidic but not in alkaline electrolyte, these insights suggest that durable iron-nitrogen-carbon catalysts are within reach for PEMFCs if rational strategies minimizing the amount of H2O2 or reactive oxygen species (ROS) produced during ORR are developed.

Metal-Nitrogen-Carbon catalysts have emerged as the most promising platinum group metal-free catalysts toward oxygen reduction reaction for proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) applications. However, their large-scale implementation in H 2 /air PEMFCs is still hindered by the low density of active sites in such materials, implying the need for thick active layers with inferior mass-transport properties. In this work, the co-electrospinning of nano-ZIF-8 (a zeolitic imidazolate framework) and polyacrylonitrile results in anisotropic and microporous FeNC fibers, offering an effective approach towards active layers with hierarchical micro-, meso-and macroporosity. X-ray computed tomography performed on the cathode ex situ reveals enhanced macroporosity of fibrous FeNC layers compared to a non-fibrous one derived from nano-ZIF-8.Applied in operando in a PEMFC, X-ray tomography showed abundant water-free macroporous voids in the fibrous FeNC layer, beneficial for the transport of reactants and products toward and away from the active sites. The combination of the Fe precursor in the electrospun solution and the high voltage applied during electrospinning is however also shown to enhance the formation of metallic Fe particles after pyrolysis, which is detrimental to the density of atomicallydispersed FeN x active sites. FeNC fibrous morphology with higher density of FeN x active sites, obtained with a modified electrospinning process or other techniques, holds therefore great potential to replace Pt/C with MNC cathodes in H 2 /air PEMFCs.