Secondary organic aerosol (SOA) is
a major component of airborne
fine particulate matter (PM
2.5
) that contributes to adverse
human health effects upon inhalation. Atmospheric ozonolysis of α-pinene,
an abundantly emitted monoterpene from terrestrial vegetation, leads
to significant global SOA formation; however, its impact on pulmonary
pathophysiology remains uncertain. In this study, we quantified an
increasing concentration response of three well-established α-pinene
SOA tracers (pinic, pinonic, and 3-methyl-1,2,3-butanetricarboxylic
acids) and a full mixture of α-pinene SOA in A549 (alveolar
epithelial carcinoma) and BEAS-2B (bronchial epithelial normal) lung
cell lines. The three aforementioned tracers contributed ∼57%
of the α-pinene SOA mass under our experimental conditions.
Cellular proliferation, cell viability, and oxidative stress were
assessed as toxicological end points. The three α-pinene SOA
molecular tracers had insignificant responses in both cell types when
compared with the α-pinene SOA (up to 200 μg mL
–1
). BEAS-2B cells exposed to 200 μg mL
–1
of
α-pinene SOA decreased cellular proliferation to ∼70%
and 44% at 24- and 48-h post exposure, respectively; no changes in
A549 cells were observed. The inhibitory concentration-50 (IC
50
) in BEAS-2B cells was found to be 912 and 230 μg mL
–1
at 24 and 48 h, respectively. An approximate 4-fold
increase in cellular oxidative stress was observed in BEAS-2B cells
when compared with untreated cells, suggesting that reactive oxygen
species (ROS) buildup resulted in the downstream cytotoxicity following
24 h of exposure to α-pinene SOA. Organic hydroperoxides that
were identified in the α-pinene SOA samples likely contributed
to the ROS and cytotoxicity. This study identifies the potential components
of α-pinene SOA that likely modulate the oxidative stress response
within lung cells and highlights the need to carry out chronic exposure
studies on α-pinene SOA to elucidate its long-term inhalation
exposure effects.
Epidemiological data shows a discrepancy in COVID‐19 susceptibility and outcomes with some regions being more heavily affected than others. However, the factors that determine host susceptibility and pathogenicity remain elusive. An increasing number of publications highlight the role of Transmembrane Serine Protease 2 (
TMPRSS2
) in the susceptibility of the host cell to SARS‐CoV‐2. Cleavage of viral spike protein via the host cell's TMPRSS2 enzyme activity mediates viral entry into the host cell. The enzyme synthesis is regulated by the
TMPRSS2
gene, which has also been implicated in the entry mechanisms of previously reported Coronavirus infections. In this review, we have investigated the pathogenicity of SARS‐CoV‐2 and disease susceptibility dependence on the
TMPRSS2
gene as expressed in various population groups. We further discuss how the differential expression of this gene in various ethnic groups can affect the SARS‐CoV‐2 infection and Coronavirus disease (COVID)‐19 outcomes. Moreover, promising new TMPRSS2 protease blockers and inhibitors are discussed for COVID‐19 treatment.
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