Short-term symptomatic treatment and dose-dependent side effects of pharmacological treatment for neurodegenerative diseases have forced the medical community to seek an effective treatment for this serious global health threat. Therapeutic potential of stem cell for treatment of neurodegenerative disorders was identified in 1980 when fetal nerve tissue was used to treat Parkinson's disease (PD). Then, extensive studies have been conducted to develop this treatment strategy for neurological disease therapy. Today, stem cells and their secretion are well-known as a therapeutic environment for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. This new paradigm has demonstrated special characteristics related to this treatment, including neuroprotective and neurodegeneration, remyelination, reduction of neural inflammation, and recovery of function after induced injury. However, the exact mechanism of stem cells in repairing nerve damage is not yet clear; exosomes derived from them, an important part of their secretion, are introduced as responsible for an important part of such effects. Numerous studies over the past few decades have evaluated the therapeutic potential of exosomes in the treatment of various neurological diseases. In this review, after recalling the features and therapeutic history, we will discuss the latest stem cell-derived exosome-based therapies for these diseases.

Aging is considered as inevitable changes at different levels of genome, cell, and organism. From the accumulation of DNA damages to imperfect protein homeostasis, altered cellular communication and exhaustion of stem cells, aging is a major risk factor for many prevalent diseases, such as cancer, cardiovascular disease, pulmonary disease, diabetes, and neurological disorders. The cells are dynamic systems, which, through a cycle of processes such as replication, growth, and death, could replenish the bodies’ organs and tissues, keeping an entire organism in optimal working order. In many different tissues, adult stem cells are behind these processes, replenishing dying cells to maintain normal tissue function and regenerating injured tissues. Therefore, adult stem cells play a vital role in preventing the aging of organs and tissues, and can delay aging. However, during aging, these cells also undergo some detrimental changes such as alterations in the microenvironment, a decline in the regenerative capacity, and loss of function. This review aimed to discuss age-related changes of stem cells in different tissues and cells, including skin, muscles, brain, heart, hair follicles, liver, and lung.

Background Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-modi ed T cell therapy has shown great potential in the immunotherapy of patients with hematologic malignancies. In spite of this striking achievement, there are still major challenges to overcome in CAR T cell therapy of solid tumors, including treatmentrelated toxicity and speci city. Also, other obstacles may be encountered in tackling solid tumors, such as their immunosuppressive microenvironment, the heterogeneous expression of cell surface markers, and the cumbersome arrival of T cells at the tumor site. Although several strategies have been developed to overcome these challenges, aditional research aimed at enhancing its e cacy with minimum side effects, the design of precise yet simpli ed work ows and the possibility to scale-up production with reduced costs and related risks is still warranted. Conclusions Here, we review main strategies to establish a balance between the toxicity and activity of CAR T cells in order to enhance their speci city and surpass immunosuppression. In recent years, many clinical studies have been conducted that eventually led to approved products. To date, the FDA has approved two anti-CD19 CAR T cell products for non-Hodgkin lymphoma therapy, i.e., axicbtagene ciloleucel and tisagenlecleucel. With all the advances that have been made in the eld of CAR T cell therapy for hematologic malignancies therapy, ongoing studies are focused on optimizing its e cacy and speci city, as well as reducing the side effects. Also, the efforts are poised to broaden CAR T cell therapeutics for other cancers, especially solid tumors.

Background Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-modified T cell therapy has shown great potential in the immunotherapy of patients with hematologic malignancies. In spite of this striking achievement, there are still major challenges to overcome in CAR T cell therapy of solid tumors, including treatment-related toxicity and specificity. Also, other obstacles may be encountered in tackling solid tumors, such as their immunosuppressive microenvironment, the heterogeneous expression of cell surface markers, and the cumbersome arrival of T cells at the tumor site. Although several strategies have been developed to overcome these challenges, aditional research aimed at enhancing its efficacy with minimum side effects, the design of precise yet simplified work flows and the possibility to scale-up production with reduced costs and related risks is still warranted.Conclusions Here, we review main strategies to establish a balance between the toxicity and activity of CAR T cells in order to enhance their specificity and surpass immunosuppression. In recent years, many clinical studies have been conducted that eventually led to approved products. To date, the FDA has approved two anti-CD19 CAR T cell products for non-Hodgkin lymphoma therapy, i.e., axicbtagene ciloleucel and tisagenlecleucel. With all the advances that have been made in the field of CAR T cell therapy for hematologic malignancies therapy, ongoing studies are focused on optimizing its efficacy and specificity, as well as reducing the side effects. Also, the efforts are poised to broaden CAR T cell therapeutics for other cancers, especially solid tumors.

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