Karstic groundwater basins are characterized by both point and diffuse recharge. This paper describes the hydrologic characteristics of point recharge and their influence on recharge estimation for four groundwater basins. Point recharge is highly transient and may occur in relatively short-time periods, yet is capable of recharging a large volume of water, even from a single extreme rainfall event. Preferential groundwater flows are observed in karst aquifers with local fresher water pockets of low salinity that develop around point recharge sources. Measurable fresh water plumes develop only when a large quantity of surface water enters the aquifer as a point recharge. In fresh water plumes, the difference in chloride concentrations in diffuse and point recharge zones decreases as the plumes become enriched through mixing. The relative contributions to total recharge from point sources using the measured gap between groundwater and rainwater chloride in the chloride vs. δ 18 O plot is not necessarily indicative of sinkholes not directly recharging the aquifer. In karst aquifers, recharge estimation methods based on groundwater age distribution; average annual rainfall and basin average chloride in the conventional chloride mass balance (CMB) method are questionable due to theoretical limitations and key assumptions of these methods not being met. In point recharge dominant groundwater basins, application of: watertable fluctuation, numerical groundwater modelling, Darcy flow calculation or water budget methods are more suitable for recharge estimation as they are independent of the particular mode of recharge. The duality of the recharge mechanism in karst aquifers suggests that modification to the CMB method may be required to include both point and diffuse recharge components.
A groundwater risk assessment was carried out for 30 potable water supply systems under a framework of protecting drinking water quality across South Australia. A semi-quantitative Groundwater Risk Assessment Model (GRAM) was developed based on a "multi-barrier" approach using likelihood of release, contaminant pathway and consequence equation. Groundwater vulnerability and well integrity have been incorporated to the pathway component of the risk equation. The land use of the study basins varies from protected water reserves to heavily stocked grazing lands. Based on the risk assessment, 15 systems were considered as low risk, four as medium and 11 systems as at high risk. The GRAM risk levels were comparable with indicator bacteria-total coliform-detection. Most high risk systems were the result of poor well construction and casing corrosion rather than the land use. We carried out risk management actions, including changes to well designs and well operational practices, design to increase time of residence and setting the production zone below identified low permeable zones to provide additional barriers to contaminants. The highlight of the risk management element is the well integrity testing using down hole geophysical methods and camera views of the casing condition.
An integrated approach combining lithological logs, downhole geophysics, electromagnetic survey and the distribution of radiocarbon ( 14 C) and the stable isotopes of water molecules ( 18 O) were used to identify the conduit flow paths of a small freshwater lens. Lost circulation zones, where drilling fluid flows into geological formation instead returning up the annulus recorded during water well drilling, were considered as the major fracture zones. The presence of high porosity zones within boreholes were identified using caliper, gamma and neutron logs. These methods were used to identify the depth intervals at which cavities and the existence of conduit porosity within the boreholes. Transient electromagnetic (TEM) method was used to investigate resistivity anomalies in the profiles along nine pre-determined lines across the freshwater lens. Resistivity anomalies were related to borehole information and other surface features such as sinkholes. Low resistivity zones of the TEM tomography sections had excellent correlation to fracture zones identified during well drilling, and downhole geophysical logs. Similarly, high resistivity zones in the profiles correlate well with the zones of O signatures of the groundwater confirm the presence of conduits and potential pathways of preferential flows. This investigation illustrates the effectiveness using an integrated approach to trace the conduit flow paths in karst aquifers. The information gained from the study is currently being used for the management of the freshwater lens.
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