A peptide hormone, root meristem growth factor (RGF), regulates root meristem development through the PLETHORA (PLT) stem cell transcription factor pathway, but it remains to be uncovered how extracellular RGF signals are transduced to the nucleus. Here we identified, using a combination of a custom-made receptor kinase (RK) expression library and exhaustive photoaffinity labeling, three leucine-rich repeat RKs (LRR-RKs) that directly interact with RGF peptides in Arabidopsis. These three LRR-RKs, which we named RGFR1, RGFR2, and RGFR3, are expressed in root tissues including the proximal meristem, the elongation zone, and the differentiation zone. The triple rgfr mutant was insensitive to externally applied RGF peptide and displayed a short root phenotype accompanied by a considerable decrease in meristematic cell number. In addition, PLT1 and PLT2 protein gradients, observed as a gradual gradient decreasing toward the elongation zone from the stem cell area in wild type, steeply declined at the root tip in the triple mutant. Because RGF peptides have been shown to create a diffusion-based concentration gradient extending from the stem cell area, our results strongly suggest that RGFRs mediate the transformation of an RGF peptide gradient into a PLT protein gradient in the proximal meristem, thereby acting as key regulators of root meristem development.peptide hormone | receptor | plant | stem cell | sulfated peptide
Early in the development of the central nervous system, progenitor cells undergo a shape change, called apical constriction, that triggers the neural plate to form a tubular structure. How apical constriction in the neural plate is controlled and how it contributes to tissue morphogenesis are not fully understood. In this study, we show that intracellular calcium ions (Ca 2+ ) are required for Xenopus neural tube formation and that there are two types of Ca 2+ -concentration changes, a single-cell and a multicellular wave-like fluctuation, in the developing neural plate. Quantitative imaging analyses revealed that transient increases in Ca 2+ concentration induced cortical F-actin remodeling, apical constriction and accelerations of the closing movement of the neural plate. We also show that extracellular ATP and N-cadherin (cdh2) participate in the Ca 2+ -induced apical constriction. Furthermore, our mathematical model suggests that the effect of Ca 2+ fluctuations on tissue morphogenesis is independent of fluctuation frequency and that fluctuations affecting individual cells are more efficient than those at the multicellular level. We propose that distinct Ca 2+ signaling patterns differentially modulate apical constriction for efficient epithelial folding and that this mechanism has a broad range of physiological outcomes.
Neural tube closure is an important and necessary process during the development of the central nervous system. The formation of the neural tube structure from a flat sheet of neural epithelium requires several cell morphogenetic events and tissue dynamics to account for the mechanics of tissue deformation. Cell elongation changes cuboidal cells into columnar cells, and apical constriction then causes them to adopt apically narrow, wedge-like shapes. In addition, the neural plate in Xenopus is stratified, and the non-neural cells in the deep layer (deep cells) pull the overlying superficial cells, eventually bringing the two layers of cells to the midline. Thus, neural tube closure appears to be a complex event in which these three physical events are considered to play key mechanical roles. To test whether these three physical events are mechanically sufficient to drive neural tube formation, we employed a three-dimensional vertex model and used it to simulate the process of neural tube closure. The results suggest that apical constriction cued the bending of the neural plate by pursing the circumference of the apical surface of the neural cells. Neural cell elongation in concert with apical constriction further narrowed the apical surface of the cells and drove the rapid folding of the neural plate, but was insufficient for complete neural tube closure. Migration of the deep cells provided the additional tissue deformation necessary for closure. To validate the model, apical constriction and cell elongation were inhibited in Xenopus laevis embryos. The resulting cell and tissue shapes resembled the corresponding simulation results.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s10237-016-0794-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
Highlights d Stretching of the ectodermal tissue of the Xenopus embryo activates Erk2 d The stretch force phosphorylates Erk2 through FGFR in a ligand-independent manner d Force-induced FGFR/Erk2 signaling enhances apical junctional structures d This system increases epithelial stiffness and integrity during gastrulation
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