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Quantitative analysis of genes that code for Dehalococcoides 16S rRNA and chloroethene-reductive dehalogenases TceA, VcrA, and BvcA was done on groundwater sampled from 150 monitoring wells spread over 11 chlorinated ethene polluted European locations. Redundancy analysis was used to relate molecular data to geochemical conditions. Dehalococcoides 16S rRNA-and vinyl chloride (VC)-reductase genes were present at all tested locations in concentrations up to 10 6 gene copies per ml of groundwater. However, differences between and also within locations were observed. Variation in Dehalococcoides 16S rRNA gene copy numbers were most strongly correlated to dissolved organic carbon concentration in groundwater and to conditions appropriate for biodegradation of chlorinated ethenes (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency score). In contrast, vcrA gene copy numbers correlated most significantly to VC and chlorinated ethene concentrations. Interestingly, bvcA and especially tceA were more correlated with oxidizing conditions. In groundwater microcosms, dechlorination of 1 mM VC was correlated to an increase of vcrA and/or bvcA gene copies by 2 to 4 orders of magnitude. Interestingly, in 34% of the monitoring wells and in 40% of the active microcosms, the amount of individual VC-reductase gene copies exceeded that of Dehalococcoides 16S rRNA gene copies. It is concluded that the geographical distribution of the genes was not homogeneous, depending on the geochemical conditions, whereby tceA and bvcA correlated to more oxidized conditions than Dehalococcoides 16S rRNA and vcrA. Because the variation in VC-reductase gene numbers was not directly correlated to variation in Dehalococcoides spp., VC-reductase genes are better monitoring parameters for VC dechlorination capacity than Dehalococcoides spp.

A transition to a low carbon energy system is needed to respond to global challenge of climate change mitigation. Aquifer Thermal Energy Storage (ATES) is a technology with worldwide potential to provide sustainable space heating and cooling by (seasonal) storage and recovery of heat in the subsurface. However, adoption of ATES varies strongly across Europe, because of both technical as well as organizational barriers, e.g. differences in climatic and subsurface conditions and legislation respectively. After identification of all these barriers in a Climate-KIC research project, six ATES pilot systems have been installed in five different EU-countries aiming to show how such barriers can be overcome. This paper presents the results of the barrier analysis and of the pilot plants. The barriers are categorized in general barriers, and barriers for mature and immature markets. Two pilots show how ATES can be successfully used to redevelop contaminated sites by combining ATES with soil remediation. Two other pilots show the added value of ATES because its storage capacity enables the utilization of solar heat in combination with solar power production.

Laboratory column experiments were performed to evaluate the fate of a series of chlorinated and nonchlorinated organic contaminants in Rhine sediment and in sediment from the infiltration area of the Municipal Water Works of Amsterdam, near Zandvoort, The Netherlands. Columns were operated under aerobic, denitrifying, and methanogenic conditions. All nonchlorinated and few chlorinated compounds were aerobically transformed. Of the compounds tested under denitrifying conditions, only 1,2‐dichloro‐4‐nitrobenzene was partially transformed. Methanogenic conditions favored the transformation of chlorinated substances by reductive dechlorination. Toluene was the only nonhalogenated compound that was transformed under methanogenic conditions. Steady‐state effluent concentrations after biotransformation were at least 10 times lower than the drinking water limit of 1 μg/l except in the case of 1,2,4‐trichlorobenzene which had a steady‐state effluent concentration of 2.6 μg/l. Steady‐state effluent concentrations did not depend on the influent concentration applied. Most transformations proceeded at the same steady‐state rates at a temperature of 4° C, although the process of reductive dechlorination was slower at 4° C than at 20° C. Hydrological calculations revealed that the combined action of hydrology and sorption to organic matter in the infiltration system can reduce the concentrations of 2 week pulses of polar and nonpolar contaminants by at least 80 and 95%, respectively. There was a good qualitative agreement between removals observed in column experiments and in the dune infiltration area.

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From 2001 to 2011, a bioreactor demonstration was performed in a 25,000m(3) (8m deep, 3500m(2) surface) test-cell. In this bioreactor, biodegradation was enhanced by premixing and homogenizing of waste, recirculation of leachate and aeration. Anaerobic biodegradation was completed within four years and was followed by two years of aeration. Ultimately a residue was obtained that had lost approximately 95% of its biogas potential. Biodegradation resulted in a significantly reduced leaching potential for dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and specific heavy metals. For other inorganic components, less progress was achieved. Increased flushing would be required for further reduction of the leaching potential. A significant reduction in chemical oxygen demand (COD) and ammonia (NH4(+)) in leachate was not demonstrated during the relative short-term aeration: COD concentrations actually increased slightly and there was no effect on NH4(+). During the project, it became clear that moisture flow through the waste followed preferential flow paths. Therefore, attention was also paid to gain better understanding of leachate flows. From a tracer test, it was concluded that part of the waste contaminants are held in immobile blocks and are to a large extent unaffected by flow occurring in the surrounding preferential flow paths.

The Netherlands has about 3800 abandoned landfills with a total surface of about 9000 ha. As they are often located near urban areas and their influence extends into their surrounding environment they put pressure on available space. Most abandoned landfills were in use until the 1960s and 1970s. Their precise geometry and composition are often unknown. The same can be said about the internal processes and resulting short- and long-term risks of the landfills. As a result landfills are often poorly understood and only monitored by measuring surrounding groundwater composition. In order to gain a better understanding of landfills – especially of their outer boundaries and the lateral variation in composition – a multidisciplinary approach is used consisting of geophysical and chemical measurements to characterise landfills. The aim of this paper is to share experiences from two sites – an abandoned landfill at the Bergen site situated in the coastal realm of the Netherlands and a modern landfill situated at the Landgraaf site in inland, hilly terrain – with a clear focus on the geophysical results. For the considered case studies, continuous vertical electrical sounding and electromagnetic measurements appeared to be preferred geophysical techniques. In combination with chemical measurements they are suitable for detecting waste site boundaries and in addition provide information on the heterogeneity observed within the considered waste sites.