ABSTRACT. Executive functions have been widely studied in the extreme of ages, but studies in middle-aged adults remain largely neglected. Education and gender are known to influence cognitive performance; however, their effect on executive function in middle-aged adults remains unclear. Objective: The study aimed to observe the effect of hierarchy of educational qualifications (graduate, postgraduate, and PhD) and gender on various executive function tests across middle-aged adults with or without comorbidity. Methods: A total of 66 middle-aged individuals volunteered for the study (mean age=48.45±5.45 years; 20 graduates, 28 postgraduates, and 18 PhD; 36 males and 30 females; 38 healthy adults and 28 adults with comorbidities). Each subject performed a test assessing short-term memory, spatial working memory, and multitasking abilities on the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery with rest periods in no specific order of tests. Key parameters of cognitive tests were analyzed for differences in educational qualifications (ANOVA), gender (t-test), and the effect of comorbidity as a covariate (ANCOVA). Results: PhDs performed significantly better (p<0.05) in multitasking than graduates and had superior visuospatial working memory (fewer errors). Differences in simultaneous matching abilities, lower incongruence cost and multitasking cost were statistically significant in healthy females than in males. Conclusion: On considering adults with comorbidity, those with higher educational attainment retained the ability to multitask compared to their healthy counterparts, which was not seen in the group with lower educational attainment. Thus, higher educational attainment attenuated the influence of comorbidities and deterioration of executive functions in general in middle-aged adults.
Background: Executive function performance has been extensively studied in extreme age groups, but the middle age population, where a decline could begin, is still under investigation. The role of factors like education and physical activity that might influence cognitive performance is not well understood. Objective: The study aimed to examine the influence of age, education, and physical activity on executive function performance and the interaction effects between these factors on two subpopulations of adults, i.e., young adults and middle-aged adults. Methods: 92 adults, 46 young adults (N = 24.4±2.7years, 25 postgraduates and 21 PhDs) and 46 middle-aged adults (N = 48.08±5.79 years, 28 postgraduates and 18 PhDs), were included. Each subject performed Delayed Matching of Sample (DMS), Spatial Working Memory (SWM), and Multitasking (MTT) test on CANTAB. Physical activity levels were reported through IPAQ. Results: Results indicated age to have a major influence on DMS, SWM, and MTT performance; however, education was only found to influence SWM. MTT and SWM performance was found to be lower in middle-aged adults in comparison to young adults. On comparison of test scores between highly active and moderately active groups of middle-aged adults, no differences were found; however, in young adults, MTT correct scores (p<0.05) were significantly higher in the highly active group in comparison to their counterparts. Interaction between age and level of education revealed better retrieval in middle-aged adults with higher education in comparison to their counterparts. Conclusion: In comparison to younger counterparts, executive function performance deteriorated around the middle ages. Education was found to play a protective role in executive abilities slowing during middle age. Also, physical activity may play some role in executive function performance.
The present study aimed at investigating the association between short-term heart rate variability and executive function performance in two groups of the adult population, that is, young adults and middle-aged adults. The influence of physical activity on heart rate variability and executive performance was also analyzed. A crosssectional study was conducted on 143 adults; 65 middle-aged adults and 78 young adults. Each participant's heart rate variability was recorded during the ideal state, during the executive function task and recovery state. The executive function tests included the Delayed Matching of Sample (DMS), Spatial Working Memory (SWM) and Multitasking Test (MTT) on the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB). Physical activity levels were reported through IPAQ. Results revealed resting HRV indicator, RMSSD was able to predict correct scores in DMS, error rates in SWM, and reaction latencies in MTT in the adult population, and adults with high HRV performed better in the tests. Middle-aged adults demonstrated high sympathetic activity at rest, and reactivity of HRV was seen maximum during the MTT task. Young adults showed higher sympathetic activation to imposed demands of multitasking. Physical activity was able to predict executive scores and resting HRV. HRV was found to be associated with executive function performance in the adult population.
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