Solid State Lighting is a rapidly growing new technology in the field of lighting. By utilizing the concepts of solid-state physics and electronics, it generates light. Light emitting diodes and organic light emitting diodes pose several advantages over the current lighting technology but they still require development and research for using them to their full potential. In this paper the characteristics, sources of uncertainty, and market status of light emitting diode are reviewed to provide more suitable research directions for advancement in the field of solid-state lighting. Challenges faced by Light emitting diodes for maintaining color and visual comfort are also illustrated. Failure modes and environmental impact of light emitting diodes are also analysed. Quantum dot based solid state lightening is also presented to study the chromatic characteristics. Some critical factors of concern for broader application of light emitting diodes and additional enhancements in electrical, optical, temperature characteristic, high power output and color furnishing capabilities are also demonstrated in paper. Light emitting diodes wattage output and efficiency are also discussed for practical viability of solid state devices in emerging fields. The extension lead of current LED technology in evolving applications are considered as accumulation of numerous technologies such as wireless, communication, sensors and control engineering. Undoubtedly, LED engineering is contemporary and the price maybe unreasonable. Nevertheless, it will find its usage in very nearly all applications and the initiation of new techniques that might lessen the cost.
Background and Aims: Spinal anaesthesia (SA) with bolus dose has rapid onset but rapid onset may precipitate hypotension. If local anaesthetic is injected in fractions with some time gap, it may provide dense block with haemodynamic stability and prolonged duration of analgesia. We aimed to compare bolus dose with fractionated dose in SA for haemodynamic stability and duration of analgesia in patients undergoing lower limb surgery. Materials and Methods: After the Institutional Ethics Committee clearance, the study was carried out in sixty patients undergoing lower limb surgery. Patients were divided into two groups. Group B patients received single bolus SA with injection bupivacaine heavy (0.5%), 3 ml and Group F patients fractionated dose with two-third (2ml) of the total dose of injection bupivacaine heavy (0.5%) given initially followed by one-third (1ml) dose after 90s. Time of onset and regression of sensory and motor blockage, intraoperative haemodynamics and duration of analgesia were recorded and analysed with Student's unpaired t-test. Result: Patients were more haemodynamically stable in Group F as compared to Group B. Five patients in Group F and ten patients in Group B required vasopressor. Duration of sensory and motor block and duration of analgesia were longer in Group F compared to Group B. Conclusion: Fractionated dose of SA provides greater haemodynamic stability and longer duration of analgesia compared to bolus dose.
Background: For caesarean sections, local anesthetics e.g. bupivacaine, chloroprocaine, levobupivacaine, lidocaine, ropivacaine, and tetracaine have been used generally in combination usually with opioids like morphine or fentanyl or its derivatives. Aim and Objectives: Thus this study was conducted to compare the efficacy of two different doses of 0.5% hyperbaric bupivacaine (7.5mg and 10mg) in women undergoing caesarean section. Materials and Method:The study was conducted in the Department of Anaesthesiology, Teerthanker Mahaveer hospital, TMU, Moradabad among 80 American Society of Anaesthesiologists (ASA) physical status I and II patients scheduled for elective caesarean section. The spinal anaesthetic haemodynamic parameters, i.e., Heart Rate, Non Invasive Blood Pressure, ECG, MAP and SpO2 were monitored. The sensory and motor onset time and time to regression were recorded. Results: Group B patients had significantly higher pulse rate post-spinal(P<0.05); significantly lower pulse rate at 6,8,10,16,19,25,30,35,40,45 and 60 minutes. Group B patients had significantly high systolic blood pressure post-spinal, at 2, 4, 6, 35, and 50 minutes. Group B patients took significantly more time to attain maximum motor and sensory block than group A. APGAR scores of the neonates born to the patients of the two groups were compared. Group B patients had significantly high mean diastolic and MAP post-spinal, 2, 4, and at 6 minutes. Conclusion: Low dose (7.mg) Bupivacaine shows better hemodynamic stability whereas the conventional dose (10mg) showed a faster onset/duration of sensory block and a prolonged motor block.
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