This study examines legal debates over the lawfulness of alcoholic beverages between Mälikl/Shäfi'i and Hanafi jurists. While there was an early consensus surrounding the prohibition of an intoxicating drink derived from grapes, disagreements persisted regarding intoxicants obtained from non-grape sources. The primary advocates for the prohibition of all intoxicants were Mâlikî and Shäfi'i jurists whose works were increasingly devoted to attacking their Hanafi counterparts. Mäliki critiques centered on arguments rooted in the Qur'än, while Shäfi'i critiques relied on traditions from the Prophet/Companions. The Hanafis argued for a narrow prohibition limited to a single drink (i.e., khamr) and forbade other drinks only if consumed to the point of intoxication. Over time, the Hanafis abandoned their original position and endorsed complete prohibition due, perhaps, to the growing moral stigma associated with intoxicants. They did so by "reinterpreting" the views of one of their founding figures, Muhammad b. al-Hasan al-Shaybâni (d. 189/806).
Zaydism, one of the three major branches of Sh?‘ism, emerged in the early 2nd/8th century in the southern Iraqi city of Kūfa around the claims of the ‘Alid rebel, Zayd b. ‘Al? (d. 122/740). The sect initially consisted of a range of Sh?‘? groups that shared a common political agenda but differed in their opinions of the first two caliphs. The next three centuries witnessed the development of a cohesive Zayd? theology constructed primarily on the Mu‘tazil? belief in a just and rational God. Specifically, the Zayd?s affirmed free will and a theory of the imāmate that required armed uprising against tyrants under the leadership of a learned descendant of ‘Al? and Fātima. Zayd? Imāms established a number of long‐standing political states, the most important of which was centered in northern Yemen around the city of . Intellectually, Yemen? Zaydism was challenged by a gradual Sunnification that began in the 9th/15th century (as epitomized by al‐Shawkān? in the 19th century) and the intensification of Wahhāb? missionary activities in the 14th/20th century (epitomized by Muqbil ). These tensions persist into the modern period and have given rise to a new wave of political activism reflected in (a) the armed resistance of the ‘Youthful Believers’ led by the family and (b) the emergence of a new generation of Zayd? scholars such as Sālim ‘Izzān who do not trace their descent to ‘Al? and .
I propose a narrative for the emergence of sectarian consciousness rooted in distinctive ritual practice and geographical space. This differs from recent studies of early Imāmī Shīʿism which tend to focus on historical struggles for political power or theological disputes about religious authority (i.e., the imāmate). I conclude that an observable proto-Imāmī identity began to crystallize in early 2 nd /8 th century Kūfa. In an urban environment characterized by a growing correlation between communal identity and ritual practice, the Imāmīs carved out distinctive sacred spaces in Kūfa, frequenting a set of revered mosques and avoiding others associated with hostile elements. Over time, Imāmīs increasingly emphasized smaller pilgrimages (ziyārāt) to shrines and other locations of historical and religious significance (e.g., ʿAlī's shrine and al-Ḥusayn's grave in Karbalāʾ). By the early 5 th /11 th century, participation in large processions to holy sites constituted a clear public declaration of communal loyalty.
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