Civil–military relations in Ghana have a chequered history; since the first coup of 1966, there had been four military takeovers of political power, in 1969, 1972, 1979, and 1980. Relations are thawing, as evidenced by the fact that there has been no overt attempt at overthrowing a government since 1992. This article employs a qualitative approach to data collection and analysis to explain civil–military relations in Ghana’s Fourth Republic (1992–2018). It argues that there is agreement among three societal partners—political elites, military, and the citizenry on four variables; social composition of the officer corps, political decision–making, and recruitment and military style. Yet focus of the civil–military discourse has been on political elites and military. These two are vital to the political decision process. Although the third partner, the citizenry has a meaningful voice, military–society relations fluctuates over time. There is mixed perceptions among Ghanaian about the armed forces.
This study determines the level of some heavy metals and as well assess human health risk due to chronic intake of metals in water samples obtained from Tudun Murtala area of Nasssarawa local government area, Kano state. Results obtained showed that Pb, Cd, Cr, Fe and Zn concentrations in water samples were within the range of 0.295-0.579, 0.471-0.529, 0.550-1.000, 0.3636 -0.4545, 0.0814 -0.173 respectively, while the Chronic daily intake calculated for the metals respectively were also within the range of 0.0086 -0.0165, 0.0135 -0.0186, 0.0034 -0.0262, 0.0023 -0.0049, 0.0104 -0.0130. The total hazard quotient for non-cancer risk of Pb and Cd were found highly elevated, being at the range of 21.5 -41.25 and 27.0 -37.2 respectively while that of Cr, Zn and Fe where found to be below the standard limit of one. The hazard index of metals also showed a risk in exposure to Pb and Cd and a tolerable range was observed for Cr, Fe and Zn. The incremental lifetime cancer risk of metals developed through oral route showed elevated level in Pb, Cd and Cr, revealing that exposure to the heavy metals in the water samples posed an unacceptable potential cancer risk. While for the other metals, it showed a less or tolerable risk to the inhabitants.
scite is a Brooklyn-based organization that helps researchers better discover and understand research articles through Smart Citations–citations that display the context of the citation and describe whether the article provides supporting or contrasting evidence. scite is used by students and researchers from around the world and is funded in part by the National Science Foundation and the National Institute on Drug Abuse of the National Institutes of Health.