According to 2016 municipal register data, Italy has the highest number of Indians in continental Europe (151,000), followed by Spain (41,000). Mass immigration from India to Italy and Spain started in the 1990s, but economic and political environments more conducive to the entry and permanent settlement of immigrants have resulted in more rapid growth of the Indian immigrant community in Italy than Spain. Due to the unskilled and irregular nature of Indian immigration and the lack of integration policies for unskilled labour in both countries, the level of integration of Indian immigrants remains unexplored. In this research, we used a qualitative methodology to explore the integration level of Indian immigrants into different spheres of these host societies. We conducted 86 semi-structured interviews with Indian immigrants in seven cities with high concentration of Indian immigrants in both countries over 2016–2017. We found that the level of integration of Indian immigrants into the host societies is fragmented: some segments of the Indian community are integrated into specific spheres of the host societies, while the rest remain excluded. The main reasons for this fragmented integration are the absence of integration policies for unskilled immigrants, Indians’ provisional attitudes towards permanent settlement in these countries, the internal diversity of the Indian immigrant community and frequent international mobility through transnational networks.
The recent emigration from Indian Punjab has included Spain into the global Sikh diaspora. This group is selected to study the production of 'diaspora space' and the transformation of the territory included in it. To achieve this objective, we have focused on the historical migratory waves, the itineraries followed by immigrants and their internal mobility, which provides the essential mechanism for the expansion of diaspora space. Alongside this, an attempt has been made to delimit the extent of virtual space of diaspora through transnational communication links from Barcelona (the municipality which concentrate the most important Sikh community in Spain), to rest of the world. The preliminary finding from the mixed methodology used in the research, illustrated that the Sikh diaspora is a dynamic physical and virtual space, which is expanding firstly with intense immigrant flows from Punjab to new destinations, and secondly with the expansion of advanced communication source like internet calling and other messaging services. Their appropriation of territory is visible in the form of Gurudwaras (Sikh Temples) as a node of
Uneven spatial distribution of rented accommodation offered on Airbnb has potential to create spatial inequalities in host cities. In this regard, the claim of the proponents of Airbnb that ‘it increases spatial equality in the cities by creating opportunities for the house-owners in peripheral areas’ requires scientific analysis and empirical evidence. Using the data obtained from the Inside Airbnb website, 2011 census, the municipal register of Spain and OpenStreetMap, this article first measures the degree of penetration and spatial clustering (with LISA statistics) of the Airbnb listings in seven main tourist cities of Spain (Barcelona, Madrid, Valencia, Seville, Mallorca and Malaga). Second, it analyses (with multiple linear regression models) the spatial, socio-economic, demographic and cultural determinants of the spatial clustering of accommodation offered on Airbnb in the selected cities; and finally, it compares the growth of Airbnb and its impact on spatial inequalities in the selected cities.
In 2017, the Indian diaspora was one of the largest in the world. But until the last decade of the twentieth century, due to the limited interest of the successive governments of India, a regular register for the diaspora was not maintained. In the 1990s, accelerated migration under globalization and the growing interests of the Indian government to use it as a source of political and economic power raised the need to quantify the size and demarcate the geopolitical boundaries of the diaspora. Consequently, since 2001, the government of India began collecting data on its diaspora from the countries of destination. This information often suffers from incomplete coverage, conflicting political interests, and methodological nationalism; and provides distorted images of the diaspora. Recently, the emergence of ‘UN Global Migration Database’ and ‘Big Data’ creates an opportunity to explore other aspects of the diaspora. The main objectives of this paper are: first, to quantify the size of the diaspora population and demarcate the geopolitical boundaries of the Indian diaspora from the available sources; second, to explore the sociodemographic characteristics and internal diversity of the diaspora population; and finally, to compare the advantages and shortcomings of these data sources.
Since the 1990s, the Sikh community in India has entered a phase of considerable socioeconomic and demographic transformation that is caused by the large-scale practice of female feticide, the spread of higher education among women, and the mass emigration of unskilled men to the Western countries. These changes have a great impact on the traditional configuration of gender roles and disrupt the construction of masculinity in the Sikh community in India and in the diaspora. Based on ethnographic observations and 64 in-depth interviews with Sikh immigrants in Spain (26) and Italy (22) and their relatives in India (16), this paper first explores the expectations of masculinity in the Sikh community in Italy and Spain; and second, analyses the challenges that are imposed by the socioeconomic and demographic transformation in the Indian Sikh community and the social environment in the host countries on the construction of masculinity in the Sikh community in both countries.
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