Fibrosis is the main cause of ligamentum flavum hypertrophy, and fibrosis is caused by the accumulation of mechanical stress with the aging process, especially along the dorsal aspect of the ligamentum flavum. TGF-beta released by the endothelial cells may stimulate fibrosis, especially during the early phase of hypertrophy.

The aim of this study was to describe the detailed anatomical arrangement of ligaments of the tibiofibular syndesmosis and to highlight the clinical aspects of fracture dislocations. This study was performed on 42 legs of adult human embalmed cadavers. Tibiofibular syndesmosis ligaments attachments and their mutual relationships were described and their dimensions were measured. The anterior tibiofibular ligament is usually composed of three parts. This ligament runs obliquely at laterodistaly direction making 35 degrees angle with horizontal plane and posteriorly 65 degrees angle with sagittal plane. The posterior tibiofibular ligament runs almost horizontally 20 degrees angle with horizontal plane. The mean thicknesses of tibial and fibular attachments are 6.38+/-1.91 mm and 9.67+/-1.74 mm, respectively. The inferior transverse ligament originates from just below the posterior tibiofibular ligament, which has variations on the shape and dimensions due to its attachment points. The average length is 36.60+/-9.51 mm. The network between the fibular notch and the distal fibula has been filled with the interosseous tibiofibular ligament whose fibers follow the laterodistal and anterior direction from the tibia to the fibula. It lies proximally 30-40 mm from the mortise. At the inferior view of the tibiofibular syndesmosis a pyramidal shaped cartilaginous facet was observed which was attached to the fibula. The length of this cartilage was variable. Some of synovial plicas from the ankle joints synovial membrane were observed at this view. We conclude that the results of this study may be useful to both orthopedic surgeons and radiologists for anatomic evaluation of the tibiofibular syndesmosis area.

Accumulation of fibrosis (scarring) causes hypertrophy of the ligamentum flavum. Inflammation-related gene expression is found in the ligamentum flavum. It might be possible to prevent the hypertrophy of ligamentum flavum with antiinflammatory drugs.

This study was designed to determine and describe precise anatomy of the lateral ankle ligaments and their relationship to adjacent osseous structures. This study was performed on 42 legs of 22 adult human embalmed cadavers. The lateral ankle ligaments were carefully dissected using a 2.5x surgical loupe. Mean values for the length, width and angle of the individual lateral ankle ligaments were measured. The precise location of insertion points and course of each ligament was observed and noted with ankle placed in neutral position. The anterior talofibular and calcaneofibular ligaments were coated with radio-opaque material. Radiographs were then taken in the anteroposterior, mortise and lateral projections. The anterior talofibular ligament (ATFL) was a flat, quadrilateral ligament and it made mean angle of 25 degrees (range 5 degrees -45 degrees ) with horizontal plane, and a mean angle of 47 degrees (range 45 degrees -56 degrees ) with sagittal plane. The posterior talofibular ligament was oriented in a nearly horizontal plane. Calcaneofibular ligament (CFL) was a flat oval ligament. It made a mean angle of 40 degrees (range 30 degrees -58 degrees ) with horizontal plane, and mean angle of 51 degrees (range 32 degrees -60 degrees ) with sagittal plane. The angle between CFL and ATFL was approximately 132 degrees (range 118 degrees -145 degrees ). These data provides important information for diagnosing injury and reconstructing lateral ankle ligaments.

Twelve cadaver lower limbs were used for radiographic and CT assessment of the tibiofibular syndesmosis. Plastic spacers were placed in the distal tibiofibular intervals of each specimen in successive 1-mm increments until diastasis could be appreciated on the plain radiographs. All 2- and 3-mm diastases could be noted and clearly identified on CT scans, while the 1-, 2-mm, and half of the 3-mm syndesmotic diastases could not be appreciated with routine radiographs. CT scanning is more sensitive than radiography for detecting the minor degrees of syndesmotic injuries. Therefore, a CT scan can be performed in cases of syndesmotic instability after ankle injuries and for preoperative or postoperative evaluation of the integrity of the distal tibiofibular syndesmosis in cases of doubtful condition of the syndesmosis.

Spacers less stiff than the graft will: (1) provide stability similar to titanium cages in the presence of posterior instrumentation, (2) reduce the stresses in endplates adjacent to the spacers, and (3) increase the load transfer through the graft, as evident from the increase in stresses in graft.

The correlation between the high stresses in the pedicle and the corresponding HSC suggest that signal changes in MRI could be used as an indicator for early diagnosis of spondylolysis. The HSC of the pedicle provided useful information to diagnose early stage spondylolysis. Furthermore, the HSC may be a good indicator as to whether a bony union will result from conservative treatment.

Great deal of research is still going on in the field of orthopedic and craniofacial implant development to resolve various issues being faced by the industry today. Despite several disadvantages of the metallic implants, they continue to be used, primarily because of their superior mechanical properties. In order to minimize the harmful effects of the metallic implants and its by-products, several modifications are being made to these materials, for instance nickel-free stainless steel, cobalt-chromium and titanium alloys are being introduced to eliminate the toxic effects of nickel being released from the alloys, introduce metallic implants with lower modulus, reduce the cost of these alloys by replacing rare elements with less expensive elements etc. New alloys like tantalum, niobium, zirconium, and magnesium are receiving attention given their satisfying mechanical and biological properties. Non-oxide ceramics like silicon nitride and silicon carbide are being currently developed as a promising implant material possessing a combination of properties such as good wear and corrosion resistance, increased ductility, good fracture and creep resistance, and relatively high hardness in comparison to alumina. Polymer/magnesium composites are being developed to improve mechanical properties as well as retain polymer’s property of degradation. Recent advances in orthobiologics are proving interesting as well. This paper thus deals with the latest improvements being made to the existing implant materials and includes new materials being introduced in the field of biomaterials.