Metallurgical remains such as crucible, mould, slag and tuyere are generated in the production of bronze. The analysis of slag in particular can be used to identify the raw materials, processes and environments (temperature and condition) employed in the bronze fabrication . The Gwanbuk-ri site in Buyeo is known as the location of a royal palace during the Baekje period, in the 6-7th centuries, and crucible fragments and slags used to make bronze were excavated there. The purpose of this study is to understand the process of bronze production and the origin of the raw ores used in the Baekje period, through micro-structure and microchemical analyses. Using chemical analysis and observation of the microstructure of the crucible and slag samples, we identified evidence of the bronze alloying and melting conditions. The melting process would have taken place under a variable redox atmosphere at 1,100 oC. Cu-Sn-Pb ternary bronze might have been produced by alloying Cu-Sn metal with lead ore (galena) in the Baekje period. The lead isotope composition ratios of 2 bronze slags were located in zone 2 and zone 3 of the lead isotope map in the southern Korean peninsula, which indicates the use of galena from south Chungcheong and north Gyeongsan provinces. For efficiency and cost-effectiveness, a concentrate of lead ore might have been transported from the mine to the consumer site.
The yellow coloring of the organic and inorganic pigments used in large Buddhist paintings during the late Joseon dynasty (17th–19th centuries) is herein analyzed using Raman spectroscopy and non‐invasive component analysis via p‐XRF. p‐XRF analyses of 194 yellow points on 12 large Buddhist paintings confirmed the use of gold, orpiment, and organic pigments; however, the yellow chromophoric elements of the organic pigments were not detected. The confirmed colors ranged from light yellow (close to white) to bright and dark yellow, but microscopic analysis revealed no particles or crystals. Accurate identification of pigments comprising light elements or organic compounds is challenging, which limits their identification via p‐XRF. In contrast, Raman spectroscopy of the samples presumed to be organic pigments detected gamboge in the samples, either alone, mixed with a white inorganic pigment such as lead white to express yellow, or overlaid upon such a pigment. These results demonstrate the utility of Raman spectroscopy in the analysis of organic pigments and provide a guide for the identification of coloring materials used in cultural heritage artifacts.
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