Knowledge of the lithium (Li) isotope fractionation factor during clay mineral formation is a key parameter for Earth system models. This study refines our understanding of isotope fractionation during clay formation with essential implications for the interpretation of field data and the global geochemical cycle of Li. We synthesised Mg-rich layer silicates (stevensite and saponite) at temperatures relevant for Earth surface processes. The resultant solids were characterised by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) to confirm the mineralogy and crystallinity of the product. Bulk solid samples were treated with ammonium chloride to remove exchangeable Li in order to distinguish the Li isotopic fractionation between these sites and structural (octahedral) sites. Bulk solids, residual solids and exchangeable solutions were all enriched in 6 Li compared to the initial solution. On average, the exchangeable solutions had δ 7 Li values 7 lower than the initial solution. The average difference between the residue and initial solution δ 7 Li values (∆ 7 Li residue−solution) for the synthesised layer silicates was-16.6±1.7 at 20 • C, in agreement with modelling studies, extrapolations from high temperature experimental data and field observations. Three bonding environments were identified from 7 Li-NMR spectra which were present in both bulk and residual solid 7 Li-NMR spectra, implying that some exchangeable Li remains after treatment with ammonium chloride. The 7 Li-NMR peaks were assigned to octahedral, outer-sphere (interlayer and adsorbed) and pseudo-hexagonal (ditrigonal cavity) Li. By combining the 7 Li-NMR data with mass balance constraints we could calculate a fractionation factor, based on a Monte Carlo minimum misfit method, for each bonding environment. The calculated values are-21.5±1.1 ,-0.2±1.9 and 15.0±12.3 for the octahedral, outer-sphere and pseudo-hexagonal sites respectively (errors 1σ). The bulk fractionation factor (∆ 7 Li bulk−solution) is dependent on the chemistry of the initial solution. The higher the Na concentration in the initial solution the lower the bulk δ 7 Li value. We suggest this is due to Na outcompeting Li for interlayer sites and as interlayer Li has a high δ 7 Li value relative to octahedral Li, increased Na serves to lower the bulk δ 7 Li value. Three experiments conducted at higher pH exhibited lower δ 7 Li values in the residual solid. This could either be a kinetic effect, resulting from the higher reaction rate at high pH, or an equilibrium effect resulting from reduced Li incorporation in the residual solid and/or a change in Li speciation in solution. This study highlights the power of 7 Li-NMR in experimental studies of clay synthesis to target site specific Li isotope fractionation factors which can then be used to provide much needed constraints on field processes.

Executive Summary Return of samples from the surface of Mars has been a goal of the international Mars science community for many years. Affirmation by NASA and ESA of the importance of Mars exploration led the agencies to establish the international MSR Objectives and Samples Team (iMOST). The purpose of the team is to re‐evaluate and update the sample‐related science and engineering objectives of a Mars Sample Return (MSR) campaign. The iMOST team has also undertaken to define the measurements and the types of samples that can best address the objectives. Seven objectives have been defined for MSR, traceable through two decades of previously published international priorities. The first two objectives are further divided into sub‐objectives. Within the main part of the report, the importance to science and/or engineering of each objective is described, critical measurements that would address the objectives are specified, and the kinds of samples that would be most likely to carry key information are identified. These seven objectives provide a framework for demonstrating how the first set of returned Martian samples would impact future Martian science and exploration. They also have implications for how analogous investigations might be conducted for samples returned by future missions from other solar system bodies, especially those that may harbor biologically relevant or sensitive material, such as Ocean Worlds (Europa, Enceladus, Titan) and others. Summary of Objectives and Sub‐Objectives for MSR Identified by iMOST This objective is divided into five sub‐objectives that would apply at different landing sites. 1.1 Characterize the essential stratigraphic, sedimentologic, and facies variations of a sequence of Martian sedimentary rocks. 1.2 Understand an ancient Martian hydrothermal system through study of its mineralization products and morphological expression. 1.3 Understand the rocks and minerals representative of a deep subsurface groundwater environment. 1.4 Understand water/rock/atmosphere interactions at the Martian surface and how they have changed with time. 1.5 Determine the petrogenesis of Martian igneous rocks in time and space. This objective has three sub‐objectives: 2.1 Assess and characterize carbon, including possible organic and pre‐biotic chemistry. 2.2 Assay for the presence of biosignatures of past life at sites that hosted habitable environments and could have preserved any biosignatures. 2.3 Assess the possibility that any life forms detected are alive, or were recently alive. Summary of iMOST Findings Several specific findings were identified during the iMOST study. While they are not explicit recommendations, we suggest that they should serve as guidelines for future decision making regarding planning of potential future MSR missions. The samples to be collected by the Mars 2020 (M‐2020) rover will be of sufficient size and quality to address and solve a wide variety of scientific questions. Samples, by definition, are a statistical representation of a larger entity...

Two decades of intensive research have demonstrated that early Mars ([Formula: see text]2 Gyr) had an active sedimentary cycle, including well-preserved stratigraphic records, understandable within a source-to-sink framework with remarkable fidelity. This early cycle exhibits first-order similarities to (e.g., facies relationships, groundwater diagenesis, recycling) and first-order differences from (e.g., greater aeolian versus subaqueous processes, basaltic versus granitic provenance, absence of plate tectonics) Earth's record. Mars’ sedimentary record preserves evidence for progressive desiccation and oxidation of the surface over time, but simple models for the nature and evolution of paleoenvironments (e.g., acid Mars, early warm and wet versus late cold and dry) have given way to the view that, similar to Earth, different climate regimes on Mars coexisted on regional scales and evolved on variable timescales, and redox chemistry played a pivotal role. A major accomplishment of Mars exploration has been to demonstrate that surface and subsurface sedimentary environments were both habitable and capable of preserving any biological record. ▪ Mars has an ancient sedimentary rock record with many similarities to but also many differences from Earth's sedimentary rock record. ▪ Mars’ ancient sedimentary cycle shows a general evolution toward more desiccated and oxidized surficial conditions. ▪ Climatic regimes of early Mars were relatively clement but with regional variations leading to different sedimentary mineral assemblages. ▪ Surface and subsurface sedimentary environments on early Mars were habitable and capable of preserving any biological record that may have existed.

The direction and magnitude of magnesium (Mg) isotope fractionation attendant to the formation of clay minerals is fundamental to the use of Mg isotopes to decipher the biogeochemical cycling of Mg in the critical zone and for the oceanic Mg budget. This study provides experimental data on the Mg fractionation factor for two smectitegroup minerals (stevensite and saponite) at temperatures relevant for Earth surface processes. The resultant solids were characterised by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) to confirm the mineralogy and crystallinity of the product. A series of experiments were performed to asses the impact of temperature and pH on isotope fractionation. Bulk solid samples were treated with ammonium chloride to remove exchangeable Mg in order to distinguish the Mg isotopic fractionation between these sites and octahedral sites.All bulk and residual solids were enriched in 24 Mg compared to the initial solution and δ 26 Mg values of the exchangeable pool were lower than, or within error of, the initial solution. Final solutions were either within error of, or enriched in, 26 Mg compared to the initial solution, depending on the fraction of Mg removed from solution (f Mg ). For experiments with small or negligible f Mg , increasing the pH resulted in a higher reaction rate and reduced fractionation from the initial solution. This could point to a kinetic effect, but the composition of the residual solid (Mg/(Li+Mg) ratio) was also dependent on pH. The change in the composition was reflected in the wavenumber of the Mg 3 -OH stretch in FT-IR data, which is a proxy for bond strength, and suggests an equilibrium control. An equilibrium control is further supported by the observation of reduced fractionation compared to the initial solution with increasing temperature. Rayleigh and batch fractionation models were fitted to the data giving fractionation factors of 0.9991 and 0.9990 respectively.We compare our results with existing field and experimental data and suggest that the apparent contradictions surrounding the direction of Mg isotope fractionation into phyllosilicate minerals could be due to the similarity of Mg bond lengths between clay octahedral sites and dissolved Mg. Thus small changes in mineral structure or initial solution conditions may result in a change in bond length sufficient to alter the direction of fractionation, implying that the magnitude and direction of Mg isotope fractionation into clay minerals could be dependent on local field conditions. Alternatively, if the precipitation of secondary clay minerals in the field preferentially incorporates light Mg, as observed in this experimental study, this implies the contribution of carbonate weathering to dissolved Mg fluxes has been underestimated, with major implications for the global biogeochemical cycle of Mg.

The temperature and chemistry of early seawater have both been inferred from the isotopic composition of Precambrian chert (SiO 2 ), a precipitated mineral formed on or within marine sediments. The δ 18 O of chert shows a robust quasi-linear increase through time -a signal that has been interpreted in a number of conflicting ways. For example, changing δ 18 O has been hypothesized to reflect the product of cooling surface ocean temperatures, a signature of evolving seawater δ 18 O composition, or the product of later stage diagenesis (where measured δ 18 O reflects the composition of diagenetic fluids). We suggest this uncertainty can be resolved through the additional measurement and interpretation of the minor oxygen isotope 17 O (noted as ∆' 17 O) in conjunction with δ 18 O. In this study, we present a suite of triple oxygen isotope data on stratigraphically constrained Precambrian chert (both peritidal chert nodules in carbonates and iron formation silica). These mineralogically well-defined data allow for the first stratigraphic tests of the fidelity of 17 O in SiO 2 . We then apply a Monte Carlo resampling technique to test the features of the competing hypotheses noted above, here now including critical constraints from 17 O. The most parsimonious interpretation of these data suggests that secondary alteration with higher-temperature,