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Cytokines such as interleukin‐1β (IL‐1β) and tumour necrosis factor (TNF) may play an important role in ocular inflammation. We studied a patient with clinical features of sympathetic ophthalmia secondary to previous penetrating ocular injuries, and compared the ocular and systemic levels of IL‐1β and TNF to control serum, and correlated these findings to histopathological sections of the patient's eye. Histology showed the present‐c of a diffuse chronic inflammatory infiltrate within the choroid and in a perivascular distribution in the retina. The significantly elevated ocular and systemic levels of IL‐1β and TNF suggest that there is not only a localized ocular response hut a systemic response as well. The presence of IL‐1β TNF may play a role in the pathogenesis of ocular inflammation once the blood ocular barrier has been breached and ocular antigens have been exposed to the systemic immune system.

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Aim: This paper presents a 20-year review of retinoblastoma in Johannesburg, South Africa, aiming to better characterize the disease in this sub-Saharan setting. Methods: The study represents a retrospective case series of retinoblastoma patients presenting to Charlotte Maxeke Johannesburg Academic Hospital and Chris Hani Baragwanath Academic Hospital between January 1, 1992, and December 31, 2011. Results: The total number of cases identified was 282, with 245 meeting the study inclusion criteria. Retinoblastoma comprised 6.9% of the total pediatric oncology presentations; 65.3% were unilateral, 34.3% bilateral, and 0.4% trilateral. The overall male-to-female ratio was 1.08. The mean age at presentation overall was 32.6 months (median 28.0), in the unilateral group 39.4 months (median 33.0), and in the bilateral group 19.7 months (median 17.0). The mean delay to presentation overall was 7.0 months (median 4.0). The most frequent presenting symptoms were leukocoria (37.1%) and proptosis (34.7%). The distribution of disease stages at presentation (International Retinoblastoma Staging System) was 1.6% stage 0, 24.1% stage I, 27.8% stage II, 16.3% stage III, and 25.3% stage IV. 26.5% defaulted care. The 5-year Kaplan-Meier survival estimate was 57.7% overall. Conclusion: This study shows that delayed presentation and refusal of therapy remains a significant barrier to effective treatment in this African setting.