Diseased tissue is often characterized by abnormalities in intermediary metabolism. Observing these alterations in situ may lead to an improved understanding of pathological processes and novel ways to monitor these processes non-invasively in human patients. Although 13C is a stable isotope safe for use in animal models of disease as well as human subjects, its utility as a metabolic tracer has largely been limited to ex vivo analyses employing analytical techniques like mass spectrometry or nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Neither of these techniques is suitable for non-invasive metabolic monitoring, and the low abundance and poor gyromagnetic ratio of conventional 13C make it a poor nucleus for imaging. However, the recent advent of hyperpolarization methods, particularly dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP), make it possible to enhance the spin polarization state of 13C by many orders of magnitude, resulting in a temporary amplification of the signal sufficient for monitoring kinetics of enzyme-catalyzed reactions in living tissue through magnetic resonance spectroscopy or magnetic resonance imaging. Here we review DNP techniques to monitor metabolism in cultured cells, perfused hearts, and perfused livers, focusing on our experiences with hyperpolarized [1-13C]pyruvate. We present detailed approaches to optimize the DNP procedure, streamline biological sample preparation, and maximize detection of specific metabolic activities. We also discuss practical aspects in the choice of metabolic substrates for hyperpolarization studies, and outline some of the current technical and conceptual challenges in the field, including efforts to use hyperpolarization to quantify metabolic rates in vivo.

Hyperpolarization of nuclear spins through techniques such as dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) can greatly increase the signal-to-noise ratio in NMR measurements, thus eliminating the need for signal averaging. This enables the study of many dynamic processes which would otherwise not be amenable to study by NMR spectroscopy. A report of solid- to liquid-state DNP of a short peptide, bacitracin A, as well as of a full-length protein, L23, is presented here. The polypeptides are hyperpolarized at low temperature and dissolved for NMR signal acquisition in the liquid state in mixtures of organic solvent and water. Signal enhancements of 300-2000 are obtained in partially deuterated polypeptide when hyperpolarized on (13)C and of 30-180 when hyperpolarized on (1)H. A simulated spectrum is used to identify different resonances in the hyperpolarized (13)C spectra, and the relation between observed signal enhancement for various groups in the protein and relaxation parameters measured from the hyperpolarized samples is discussed. Thus far, solid- to liquid-state DNP has been used in conjunction with small molecules. The results presented here, however, demonstrate the feasibility of hyperpolarizing larger proteins, with potential applications toward the study of protein folding or macromolecular interactions.

Hyperpolarized carbon-13 magnetic resonance (HP-MR) is a new metabolic imaging method the does not use ionizing radiation. Due to the inherent chemical specificity of MR, not only tracer uptake but also downstream metabolism of the agent is detected in a straightforward manner. HP [2-13 C] dihydroxyacetone (DHA) is a promising new agent that directly interrogates hepatic glucose metabolism. DHA has three metabolic fates in the liver: glucose production, glycerol production and potential inclusion into triglycerides, and oxidation in the tricarboxylic acid cycle. Each pathway is regulated by flux through multiple enzymes. Using Duhamel's formula, the kinetics of DHA metabolism is modeled, resulting in estimates of specific reaction rate constants. The multiple enzymatic steps that control DHA metabolism make more simplified methods for extracting kinetic data less than satisfactory. The described modeling paradigm effectively identifies changes in metabolism between gluconeogenic and glycogenolytic models of hepatic function.

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Folding and hyperpolarization: A method is presented for the measurement of protein folding by nuclear magnetic resonance. Denatured polypeptide is hyperpolarized using dissolution dynamic nuclear polarization, yielding a substantial signal enhancement that allows real‐time 13C NMR spectroscopy of the refolding process after a rapid pH jump. The resulting spectra indicate global and site‐specific changes in the protein.

Purpose: To determine whether deuterated water (HDO) generated from the metabolism of [ 2 H 7 ]glucose is a sensitive biomarker of cerebral glycolysis and oxidative flux. Methods: A bolus of [ 2 H 7 ]glucose was injected through the tail vein at 1.95 g/kg into Sprague-Dawley rats. A 2 H surface coil was placed on top of the head to record 2 H spectra of the brain every 1.3 minutes to measure glucose uptake and metabolism to HDO, lactate, and glutamate/glutamine. A two-point Dixon method based on a gradient-echo sequence was used to reconstruct deuterated glucose and water (HDO) images selectively. Results: The background HDO signal could be detected and imaged before glucose injection. The 2 H NMR spectra showed arrival of [ 2 H 7 ]glucose and its metabolism in a time-dependent manner. A ratio of the HDO to glutamate/glutamine resonances demonstrates a pseudo-steady state following injection, in which cerebral metabolism dominates wash-in of HDO generated by peripheral metabolism. Brain spectroscopy reveals that HDO generation is linear with lactate and glutamate/glutamine appearance in the appropriate pseudo-steady state window. Selective imaging of HDO and glucose is easily accomplished using a gradient-echo method. Conclusion: Metabolic imaging of HDO, as a marker of glucose, lactate, and glutamate/glutamine metabolism, has been shown here for the first time. Cerebral glucose metabolism can be assessed efficiently using a standard gradient-echo sequence that provides superior in-plane resolution compared with CSI-based techniques. K E Y W O R D S [ 2 H 7 ]glucose, brain, DMRI, HDO, metabolism 1 | INTRODUCTION Glucose is the principal source of energy in the brain, and its dynamic uptake and use remain a key topic after decades of research. Metabolic imaging using MR-based methods has traditionally been limited to 1 H-based spectroscopic detection of metabolites through CSI or single-voxel spectroscopy. 1,2 Although these methods have been of immense How to cite this article: Mahar R, Zeng H, Giacalone A, Ragavan M, Mareci TH, Merritt ME. Deuterated water imaging of the rat brain following metabolism of [ 2 H 7 ]glucose.

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The kinase inhibitory domain of the cell cycle regulatory protein p27Kip1 (p27) was nuclear spin hyperpolarized using dissolution dynamic nuclear polarization (D-DNP). While intrinsically disordered in isolation, p27 adopts secondary structure, including α-helical structure, upon binding to cyclin-dependent kinase 2 (Cdk2)/cyclin A. The sensitivity gains obtained with hyperpolarization enable the real-time observation of 13C NMR signals during p27 folding upon binding to Cdk2/cyclin A on a time scale of several seconds. Time-dependent intensity changes are dependent on the extent of folding and binding, as manifested in differential spin relaxation. Analysis of signal decay rates suggests the existence of a partially folded p27 intermediate during the timescale of the D-DNP NMR experiment.