Naegleria fowleri, a thermophilic flagellate amoeba known as a “brain‐eating” amoeba, is the aetiological agent of a perilous and devastating waterborne disease known as primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM), both in humans as well as in animals. PAM is a rare but fatal disease affecting young adults all around the world, particularly in the developed world but recently reported from developing countries, with 95%–99% mortality rate. Swimmers and divers are at high risk of PAM as the warm water is the most propitious environment adapted by N. fowleri to cause this infection. Infective amoeba in the trophozoite phase enter the victim's body through the nose, crossing the cribriform plate to reach the human brain and cause severe destruction of the central nervous system (CNS). The brain damage leads to brain haemorrhage and death occurs within 3–7 days in undiagnosed cases and maltreated cases. Though the exact pathogenesis of N. fowleri is still not known, it has exhibited two primary mechanisms, contact‐independent (brain damage through different proteins) and contact‐dependent (brain damage through surface structures food cups), that predominantly contribute to the pathogen invading the host CNS. For the management of this life‐threatening infection different treatment regimens have been applied but still the survival rate is only 5% which is ascribed to its misdiagnosis, as the PAM symptoms closely resembled bacterial meningitis. The main objectives of this review article are to compile data to explore the sources and routes of N. fowleri infection, its association in causing PAM along with its pathophysiology; latest techniques used for accurate diagnosis, management options along with challenges for Pakistan to control this drastic disorder.
Hantaviruses are enveloped negative (−) single-stranded RNA viruses belongs to Hantaviridae family, hosted by small rodents and entering into the human body through inhalation, causing haemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) and hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS) also known as hantavirus cardiopulmonary syndrome (HCPS). Hantaviruses infect approximately more than 200 000 people annually all around the world and its mortality rate is about 35%-40%. Hantaviruses play significant role in affecting the target cells as these inhibit the apoptotic factor in these cells. These viruses impair the integrity of endothelial barrier due to an excessive innate immune response that is proposed to be central in the pathogenesis and is a hallmark of hantavirus disease. A wide range of different diagnostic tools including polymerase chain reaction (PCR), focus reduction neutralization test (FRNT), enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), immunoblot assay (IBA), immunofluorescence assay (IFA), and other molecular techniques are used as detection tools for hantavirus in the human body. Now the availability of therapeutic modalities is the major challenge to control this deadly virus because still no FDA approved drug or vaccine is available. Antiviral agents, DNA-based vaccines, polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies neutralized the viruses so these techniques are considered as the hope for the treatment of hantavirus disease. This review has been compiled to provide a comprehensive overview of hantaviruses disease, its pathophysiology, diagnostic tools and the treatment approaches to control the hantavirus infection.
Heavy metals play an important role in the homeostasis of living cells. However, these elements induce several adverse environmental effects and toxicities, and therefore seriously affect living cells and organisms. In recent years, some heavy metal pollutants have been reported to cause harmful effects on crop quality, and thus affect both food security and human health. For example, chromium, cadmium, copper, lead, and mercury were detected in natural foods. Evidence suggests that these elements are environmental contaminants in natural foods. Consequently, this review highlights the risks of heavy metal contamination of the soil and food crops, and their impact on human health. The data were retrieved from different databases such as Science Direct, PubMed, Google scholar, and the Directory of Open Access Journals. Results show that vegetable and fruit crops grown in polluted soil accumulate higher levels of heavy metals than crops grown in unpolluted soil. Moreover, heavy metals in water, air, and soil can reduce the benefits of eating fruits and vegetables. A healthy diet requires a rational consumption of foods. Physical, chemical, and biological processes have been developed to reduce heavy metal concentration and bioavailability to reduce heavy metal aggregation in the ecosystem. However, mechanisms by which these heavy metals exhibit their action on human health are not well elucidated. In addition, the positive and negative effects of heavy metals are not very well established, suggesting the need for further investigation.
Cell wall of various plants contains an organic polymer lignin. Lignin makes significant structural constituents that support of vascular plants tissues, some types of algae and makes plants stiff and woody. Chemically lignin composed of cross-linked phenolic polymers and Kraft lignin dissolved in the unsaturated resin system. Lignin is a vastly available and well-studied antioxidant. They work as antioxidant against the biological, chemical and mechanical stress on plants. The substance that removes potentially damaged oxidizing agents in a living organism is regarded as antioxidant. Lignin contains a huge amount of phenolic constructions that enable it to act as an effectual antioxidant. Infrared spectroscopy (IR) observed decreases in some oxidative aging products and maintained the idea that lignin play role as an effective antioxidant. It was discovered that antioxidant action of lignin varies with the molecular characteristics, isolation method and genetic origin. Capacity of lignin to scavenge the radicals that are involved in the oxidation is affected by partial dispersion into polymer matrix. Antioxidant activities of various technical lignins are determined. Chemical changes in lignin could result in products with characteristics that can be used in special industrial divisions.
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