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It is well-documented in the visible and near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy (VNIRS) studies that soil moisture content (SMC) negatively affects the prediction accuracy of soil attributes. This work was undertaken to remove the negative effect of SMC on the on-line prediction of soil organic carbon (SOC). A mobile VNIR spectrophotometer with a spectral range of 305–1700 nm and spectral resolution of 1 nm (CompactSpec, Tec5 Technology, Germany) was used for the spectral measurements at four farms in Flanders, Belgium. A total of 381 fresh soil samples were collected and divided into a calibration set (264) and a validation set (117). The validation samples were processed (air-dried and grind) and scanned with the same spectrophotometer in the laboratory. Three SMC correction methods, namely, external parameter orthogonalization (EPO), piecewise direct standardization (PDS), and orthogonal signal correction (OSC) were used to correct the on-line fresh spectra based-on its corresponding laboratory spectra. Then, the Cubist machine learning method was used to develop calibration models of SOC using the on-line spectra (after correction) of the calibration set. Results indicated that the EPO-Cubist outperformed the PDS-Cubist and the OSC-Cubist, with considerable improvements in the prediction results of SOC (coefficient of determination (R2) = 0.76, ratio of performance to deviation (RPD) = 2.08, and root mean square error of prediction (RMSEP) = 0.12%), compared with the corresponding uncorrected on-line spectra (R2 = 0.55, RPD = 1.24, and RMSEP = 0.20%). It can be concluded that SOC can be accurately predicted on-line using the Cubist machine learning method, after removing the negative effect of SMC with the EPO method.

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Visible and near infrared (vis–NIR) diffuse reflectance spectroscopy has made invaluable contributions to the accurate estimation of soil properties having direct and indirect spectral responses in NIR spectroscopy with measurements made in laboratory, in situ or using on-line (while the sensor is moving) platforms. Measurement accuracies vary with measurement type, for example, accuracy is higher for laboratory than on-line modes. On-line measurement accuracy deteriorates further for secondary (having indirect spectral response) soil properties. Therefore, the aim of this study is to improve on-line measurement accuracy of secondary properties by fusion of laboratory and on-line scanned spectra. Six arable fields were scanned using an on-line sensing platform coupled with a vis–NIR spectrophotometer (CompactSpec by Tec5 Technology for spectroscopy, Germany), with a spectral range of 305–1700 nm. A total of 138 soil samples were collected and used to develop five calibration models: (i) standard, using 100 laboratory scanned samples; (ii) hybrid-1, using 75 laboratory and 25 on-line samples; (iii) hybrid-2, using 50 laboratory and 50 on-line samples; (iv) hybrid-3, using 25 laboratory and 75 on-line samples, and (v) real-time using 100 on-line samples. Partial least squares regression (PLSR) models were developed for soil pH, available potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), and sodium (Na) and quality of models were validated using an independent prediction dataset (38 samples). Validation results showed that the standard models with laboratory scanned spectra provided poor to moderate accuracy for on-line prediction, and the hybrid-3 and real-time models provided the best prediction results, although hybrid-2 model with 50% on-line spectra provided equally good results for all properties except for pH and Na. These results suggest that either the real-time model with exclusively on-line spectra or the hybrid model with fusion up to 50% (except for pH and Na) and 75% on-line scanned spectra allows significant improvement of on-line prediction accuracy for secondary soil properties using vis–NIR spectroscopy.

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