No abstract

SUMMARYThe lateral hypothalamic area (LHA) regulates food intake and energy expenditure. Although LHA neurons innervate adipose tissues, the identity of neurons that regulate fat is undefined. Here we identify that Gabra5-positive neurons in LHA (GABRA5LHA) polysynaptically project to brown and white adipose tissues in the periphery. GABRA5LHA are a distinct subpopulation of GABAergic neurons and show decreased pacemaker firing in diet-induced obesity (DIO) mouse model. Chemogenetic inhibition of GABRA5LHA suppresses energy expenditure and increases weight gain, whereas gene-silencing of Gabra5 in LHA decreases weight gain. In DIO mouse model, GABRA5LHA are tonically inhibited by nearby reactive astrocytes releasing GABA, which is synthesized by MAOB. Gene-silencing of astrocytic MAOB in LHA reduces weight gain significantly without affecting food intake, which is recapitulated by administration of a MAOB inhibitor, KDS2010. We propose that firing of GABRA5LHA facilitates energy expenditure and selective inhibition of astrocytic GABA is a molecular target for treating obesity.

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease that represents a major cause of death in many countries. AD is characterized by profound memory loss, disruptions in thinking and reasoning, and changes in personality and behavior followed by malfunctions in various bodily systems. Although AD was first identified over 100 years ago, and tremendous efforts have been made to cure the disease, the precise mechanisms underlying the onset of AD remain unclear. The recent development of next-generation sequencing tools and bioinformatics has enabled us to investigate the role of genetics in the pathogenesis of AD. In this review, we discuss novel discoveries in this area, including the results of genome-wide association studies (GWAS) that have implicated a number of novel genes as risk factors, as well as the identification of epigenetic regulators strongly associated with the onset and progression of AD. We also review how genetic risk factors may interact with age-associated, progressive decreases in cognitive function in patients with AD.

Reactive astrogliosis is a hallmark of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). However, a clinically validated neuroimaging probe to visualize the reactive astrogliosis is yet to be discovered. Here, we show that PET imaging with 11C-acetate and 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose (18F-FDG) functionally visualizes the reactive astrocyte-mediated neuronal hypometabolism in the brains with neuroinflammation and AD. To investigate the alterations of acetate and glucose metabolism in the diseased brains and their impact on the AD pathology, we adopted multifaceted approaches including microPET imaging, autoradiography, immunohistochemistry, metabolomics, and electrophysiology. Two AD rodent models, APP/PS1 and 5xFAD transgenic mice, one adenovirus-induced rat model of reactive astrogliosis, and post-mortem human brain tissues were used in this study. We further curated a proof-of-concept human study that included 11C-acetate and 18F-FDG PET imaging analyses along with neuropsychological assessments from 11 AD patients and 10 healthy control subjects. We demonstrate that reactive astrocytes excessively absorb acetate through elevated monocarboxylate transporter-1 (MCT1) in rodent models of both reactive astrogliosis and AD. The elevated acetate uptake is associated with reactive astrogliosis and boosts the aberrant astrocytic GABA synthesis when amyloid-β is present. The excessive astrocytic GABA subsequently suppresses neuronal activity, which could lead to glucose uptake through decreased glucose transporter-3 in the diseased brains. We further demonstrate that 11C-acetate uptake was significantly increased in the entorhinal cortex, hippocampus and temporo-parietal neocortex of the AD patients compared to the healthy controls, while 18F-FDG uptake was significantly reduced in the same regions. Additionally, we discover a strong correlation between the patients’ cognitive function and the PET signals of both 11C-acetate and 18F-FDG. We demonstrate the potential value of PET imaging with 11C-acetate and 18F-FDG by visualizing reactive astrogliosis and the associated neuronal glucose hypometablosim for AD patients. Our findings further suggest that the acetate-boosted reactive astrocyte-neuron interaction could contribute to the cognitive decline in AD.

Alzheimers disease (AD) is one of the foremost neurodegenerative diseases, characterized by beta-amyloid (Aβ) plaques and significant progressive memory loss. In AD, astrocytes are known to take up and clear Aβ plaques. However, how Aβ induces pathogenesis and memory impairment in AD remains elusive. We report that normal astrocytes show non-cyclic urea metabolism, whereas Aβ-treated astrocytes show switched-on urea cycle with upregulated enzymes and accumulated entering-metabolite aspartate, starting-substrate ammonia, end-product urea, and side-product putrescine. Gene-silencing of astrocytic ornithine decarboxylase-1 (ODC1), facilitating ornithine-to-putrescine conversion, boosts urea cycle and eliminates aberrant putrescine and its toxic by-products ammonia, H2O2, and GABA to recover from reactive astrogliosis and memory impairment in AD model. Our findings implicate that astrocytic urea cycle exerts opposing roles of beneficial Aβ detoxification and detrimental memory impairment in AD. We propose ODC1-inhibition as a promising therapeutic strategy for AD to facilitate removal of toxic molecules and prevent memory loss.

The Golgi apparatus is a critical intracellular organelle that is responsible for modifying, packaging, and transporting proteins to their destinations. Golgi homeostasis involving the acidic pH, ion concentration, and membrane potential, is critical for proper functions and morphology of the Golgi. Although transporters and anion channels that contribute to Golgi homeostasis have been identified, the molecular identity of cation channels remains unknown. Here we identify TMEM87A as a novel Golgi-resident cation channel that contributes to pH homeostasis and rename it as GolpHCat (Golgi pH-sensitive Cation channel). The genetic ablation of GolpHCat exhibits an impaired resting pH in the Golgi. Heterologously expressed GolpHCat displays voltage- and pH-dependent, non-selective cationic, and inwardly rectifying currents, with potent inhibition by gluconate. Furthermore, reconstitution of purified GolpHCat in liposomes generates functional channel activities with unique voltage-dependent gating and ion permeation. GolpHCat is expressed in various cell types such as neurons and astrocytes in the brain. In the hippocampus, GolpHCat-knockout mice show dilated Golgi morphology and altered glycosylation and protein trafficking, leading to impaired spatial memory with significantly reduced long-term potentiation. We elucidate that GolpHCat, by maintaining Golgi membrane potential, regulates ionic and osmotic homeostasis, protein glycosylation/trafficking, and brain functions. Our results propose a new molecular target for Golgi-related diseases and cognitive impairment.

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) is the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS. In astrocytes, GABA is synthesized by degradation of putrescine by monoamine oxidase B (MAO-B), a process which is known to mediate tonic inhibition of neuronal excitability. This astrocytic tonic GABA and related enzymes are also reported to be involved in memory impairment in Alzheimers Disease, and therefore are potential therapeutic targets to rescue memory in AD patients. However, the enzymes downstream of MAO-B in this pathway have not been elucidated yet. To fill this gap in knowledge, we performed transcriptomic and literature database analysis and identified Aldehyde dehydrogenase 1 family, member A1 (ALDH1A1) and a histone deacetylase enzyme Sirtuin2 (SIRT2) as plausible candidate enzymes in primary cultured astrocytes. Immunostaining, metabolite analyses, and sniffer patch clamp performed in the presence or absence of suitable inhibitors, or with genetic ablation of the candidate enzymes recapitulated their participation in GABA production. We propose ALDH1A1 and SIRT2 as potential therapeutic targets against Alzheimers Disease.

GABA synthesis in astrocytes mediates tonic inhibition to regulate patho-physiological processes in various brain regions. Monoamine oxidase B (MAO-B) has been known to be the most important metabolic enzyme for synthesizing GABA from the putrescine degradation pathway. MAO-B converts N1-acetylputrescine to N1-acetyl-gamma-aminobutyraldehyde and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Putrescine acetyltransferase (PAT), also known as spermidine and spermine N1-acetyltransferase 1 (SAT1), has been thought to be a feasible candidate enzyme for converting putrescine to N1-acetylputrescine. However, it has not been rigorously investigated or determined whether PAT/SAT1 contributes to GABA synthesis in astrocytes. To investigate the contribution of PAT/SAT1 to GABA synthesis in astrocytes, we conducted sniffer patch and whole-cell patch experiments with gene silencing of PAT/SAT1 by Sat1 shRNA expression. Our results showed that the gene silencing of PAT/SAT1 significantly decreased the MAO-B-dependent GABA synthesis, which was induced by putrescine incubation, leading to decreased Ca2+-dependent release of GABA in vitro. Additionally, we found that, from the brain slice ex vivo, putrescine incubation induces tonic GABA inhibition in dentate gyrus granule cells, which can be inhibited by MAO-B inhibitor, selegiline. Consistent with our in vitro results, astrocytic gene silencing of PAT/SAT1 significantly reduced putrescine incubation-induced tonic GABA current, possibly by converting putrescine to N1-acetylputrescine, a substrate of MAO-B. Our findings emphasize a crucial role of PAT/SAT1 in MAO-B-dependent GABA synthesis in astrocytes.