The malaria vaccine Combination B comprises recombinant Plasmodium falciparum ring-infected erythrocyte surface antigen and 2 merozoite surface proteins (MSP1 and MSP2) formulated in oil-based adjuvant. A phase 1-2b double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial in 120 children (5-9 years old) in Papua New Guinea demonstrated a 62% (95% confidence limits: 13%, 84%) reduction in parasite density in children not pretreated with sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine. Vaccinees had a lower prevalence of parasites carrying the MSP2-3D7 allelic form (corresponding to that in the vaccine) and a higher incidence of morbid episodes associated with FC27-type parasites. These results demonstrate functional activity of Combination B against P. falciparum in individuals with previous malaria exposure. The specific effects on parasites with particular msp2 genotypes suggest that the MSP2 component, at least in part, accounted for the activity. The vaccine-induced selection pressure exerted on the parasites and its consequences for morbidity strongly argue for developing vaccines comprising conserved antigens and/or multiple components covering all important allelic types.

Parasitized red blood cells (RBCs) from children suffering from severe malaria often adhere to complement receptor 1 (CR1) on uninfected RBCs to form clumps of cells known as ''rosettes.'' Despite a well documented association between rosetting and severe malaria, it is controversial whether rosetting is a cause or a correlate of parasite virulence. CR1-deficient RBC show greatly reduced rosetting; therefore, we hypothesized that, if rosetting is a direct cause of malaria pathology, CR1-deficient individuals should be protected against severe disease. In this study, we show that RBC CR1 deficiency occurs in up to 80% of healthy individuals from the malaria-endemic regions of Papua New Guinea. This RBC CR1 deficiency is associated with polymorphisms in the CR1 gene and, unexpectedly, with ␣-thalassemia, a common genetic disorder in Melanesian populations. Analysis of a case-control study demonstrated that the CR1 polymorphisms and ␣-thalassemia independently confer protection against severe malaria. We have therefore identified CR1 as a new malaria resistance gene and provided compelling evidence that rosetting is an important parasite virulence phenotype that should be a target for drug and vaccine development.

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Interaction of the Duffy binding protein (DBP) with its erythrocyte receptor is critical for maintaining Plasmodium vivax blood-stage infections, making DBP an appealing vaccine candidate. The cysteine-rich region II is the ligand domain of DBP and a target of vaccine development. Interestingly, most of the allelic diversity observed in DBP is due to the high rate of nonsynonymous polymorphisms in this critical domain for receptor recognition. Similar to the hypervariability in influenza hemagglutinin, this pattern of polymorphisms in the DBP ligand domain suggests that this variation is a mechanism to evade antibody neutralization. To evaluate the role that dbp allelic diversity plays in strain-specific immunity, we examined the ability of an anti-Sal1 DBP serum to inhibit the erythrocyte-binding function of variant dbp alleles expressed on COS cells. We observed that the PNG-7.18 allele was significantly less sensitive to immune inhibition of its erythrocyte-binding activity than were the Sal1 and PNG-27.16 alleles. This result suggested that the unique polymorphisms of resistant PNG-7.18 were part of a protective epitope on the DBP ligand. To confirm this, Sal1 was converted to the refractory phenotype by introduction of 3 polymorphisms unique to PNG-7.18, via site-directed mutagenesis. The results of the present study indicate that linked polymorphisms have an additive, synergistic effect on DBP antigenic character.

The interaction between the Plasmodium vivax merozoite Duffy binding protein region II (DBPII) and the human erythrocyte Duffy antigen leads to infection. Highly polymorphic regions of this protein may have arisen as a mechanism to avoid host immunity. To examine whether immunity to P. vivax is directed against these polymorphic regions of DBPII, age-associated changes in the frequency of specific DBPII alleles among 358 P. vivax-positive Papua New Guineans were examined. Although the overall number and diversity of DBPII haplotypes simultaneously infecting an individual decreased with increasing age, only certain alleles at particular loci declined in frequency, indicating preferential immune selection against these alleles. One such polymorphic locus formed part of a B cell epitope, and antibodies from exposed individuals differentially recognized alleles at this locus. Therefore, acquisition of strain-specific age-acquired immunity is partially directed against polymorphic motifs within P. vivax DBPII, suggesting that these polymorphisms are maintained and likely arose under immune pressure in the host.

Abstract. Zinc is crucial for normal immune function and can reduce morbidity from multiple infectious diseases. To determine the influence of zinc on malaria morbidity we conducted a randomized placebo-controlled trial of daily zinc supplementation in children residing in a malaria endemic region of Papua New Guinea. A total of 274 preschool children aged 6 to 60 months were given 10 mg elemental zinc (n ϭ 136) or placebo (n ϭ 138) for 6 days a week for 46 weeks. Slide-confirmed malaria episodes were detected by surveillance of cases self-reporting to a local health center. Cross-sectional surveys were conducted at the beginning, middle, and end of the study to assess infection rates, parasite density, spleen enlargement, and hemoglobin levels. Zinc supplementation resulted in a 38% (95% CI 3-60, P ϭ 0.037) reduction in Plasmodium falciparum health center-based episodes, defined as parasitemia Ն 9200 parasites/l with axial temperature Ն 37.5ЊC or reported fever. Episodes accompanied by any parasitemia were also reduced by 38% (95% CI 5-60, P ϭ 0.028), and episodes with parasitemia Ն 100,000/l were reduced by 69% (95% CI 25-87, P ϭ 0.009). There was no evidence of the effects of zinc on Plasmodium vivax morbidity or on health center attendance for causes other than P. falciparum. Zinc had no consistent effect on cross-sectional malariometric indices. Although P. falciparum prevalence tended to be lower at the end of the study in children given the placebo, such changes were absent at the mid-study survey. These results suggest that improved dietary zinc intake may reduce morbidity due to P. falciparum.

We investigated the prevalence and magnitude of naturally acquired humoral immune response to the major merozoite surface protein (MSP-1) in a malaria-endemic population in Papua New Guinea. A prospective longitudinal study in 0.5-15-year-old children was conducted for one year to examine the relationship between acquired immune response to MSP-1 and subsequent susceptibility to clinical disease. The prevalence and concentration of antibodies to both N-(195A) and C-terminal (BVp42) regions of MSP-1 as well as to the parasite-derived MSP-1 increased with age, with the highest prevalence and concentration of antibodies being detected for the parasite-derived MSP-1 molecule and the C-terminal region of MSP-1. As malaria morbidity decreases with age, a significant negative correlation was observed between antibody levels to both 195A and BVp42 and the incidence rate of clinical malaria. When age and past exposure were corrected for, only antibody concentrations against BVp42 and to a lesser extent parasite-derived MSP-1 were significantly associated with protection from clinical malaria and severe parasitemia. The reduction in the incidence rate of clinical malaria observed in individuals with high antibody concentration to MSP-1 may be due to antibodies directed against epitopes within the C-terminal region of MSP-1.

Abstract. Malaria is holoendemic in the lowlands of Papua New Guinea (PNG), and interactions among Plasmodium species may influence prevalence of mixed infections. Previously, field samples from a cross-sectional survey in Dreikikir, East Sepik Province, analyzed by blood smear and polymerase chain reaction (PCR), showed that mixed infections were common and randomly distributed in this malaria endemic region. To evaluate further whether Plasmodium species distribution is random, blood smear-and PCR/sequence-specific oligonucleotide probe hybridizationbased analyses of cross-sectional survey samples were conducted in 2 additional malaria holoendemic regions of northern PNG. Despite ecologic, species prevalence, and transmission season differences in these new surveys, all 4 Plasmodium species were found to be randomly distributed in each area; random distribution patterns also were observed when study populations were divided into age groups. These findings provide consistent evidence that Plasmodium species infections occur independently of one another in PNG malaria holoendemic sites. This independent occurrence suggests that age-dependent, acquired malaria immunity has limited influence on the distribution pattern of Plasmodium species infections in endemic human populations; infection by 1 human malaria parasite species does not reduce susceptibility to infection by others; and malaria vaccines would exhibit limited protection against blood-stage infection by heterologous Plasmodium species.