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It is well established that human tumors overproduce plasmin a serine protease that is known to promote angiogenesis, tumor growth and metastasis. However, the mechanism by which endothelial or tumor cells regulate the proteolytic activity of plasmin is not well understood. Cell surface receptors regulate activation of plasminogen to plasmin and its proteolytic activity. Annexin II is one of the well studied receptors for plasminogen and tPA, which binds to plasminogen and converts it to plasmin. Plasmin is a highly reactive enzyme which is physiologically involved in fibrinolysis. Since the proteolytic activity of plasmin is very tightly regulated, uncontrolled production of plasmin can degrade extracellular matrix (ECM) and basement membrane (BM) of the surrounding blood vessels. Thus plasmin plays an important role in neoangiogenesis and cancer invasion and metastasis. Therefore, the receptor which regulates plasmin generation may be an attractive target for the development of anti-cancer/anti-metastatic agents. Angiostatin (AS), internal fragment of plasminogen, has been reported to inhibit human tumor growth and metastasis. We have shown that AS binds to endothelial/cancer cell surface annexin II with high affinity and interferes with plasmin generation suggesting that the role of plasmin/plasminogen system may be more complex than we previously thought. In this review we provide a comprehensive analysis of the literature in context of the role of annexin II in angiogenesis, tumor progression and metastasis. Compelling evidence from the literature and our own findings suggest that annexin II may be a potential target for the development of effective therapeutic strategies for the treatment of cancer and its induced metastasis.

Ultraviolet B (UVB) irradiation potently induces cytokines in the skin, including interleukin-1α (IL-1α) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α). The mechanism for TNF-α induction in UVB-irradiated keratinocytes is not clear. In the current study, we explored the effects of UVB and cytokines, alone or in combination in human keratinocytes. Keratinocytes were sham- or UVB-irradiated with 30 mJ/cm2, and then incubated in the absence or presence of IFN-α2b, TNF-α or IL-1α. UVB and IL-1α treatment synergistically enhanced TNF-α secretion and mRNA levels in human keratinocytes, similar to the findings reported previously in human fibroblasts. Exogenous recombinant TNF-α up-regulates its own mRNA level. However, addition of IFN-α2b did not show any additive effect on TNF-α mRNA induction. To understand the regulation of TNF-α mRNA by UVB, with or without IL-1α, we examined the transcription rate and half-life of TNF-α mRNA. Treatment of keratinocytes with IL-1α or UVB alone increased TNF-α gene transcription 4–5-fold over sham treatment, and TNF-α gene transcription increased 11-fold in cells treated with UVB plus IL-1α over sham. UVB with IL-1α did not enhance the half-life of TNF-α mRNA over that seen with UVB alone. In conclusion, TNF-α expression in primary keratinocytes is up-regulated transcriptionally by UVB and IL-1α.

Upregulation of TNF-alpha is a key early response to ultraviolet B (UVB) by keratinocytes (KCs), and represents an important component of the inflammatory cascade in skin. UVB irradiation induces TNF-alpha expression in both KCs and dermal fibroblasts, with TNF-alpha mRNA induction seen as early as 1.5 h after UVB. We previously reported that the effects are wavelength-specific: TNF-alpha expression and secretion are induced by UVB (290-320 nm), but not by UVA (320-400 nm). Moreover, we found that IL-1alpha, a cytokine also present in irradiated skin, substantially and synergistically enhances the induction of TNF-alpha by UVB, and the induction of TNF-alpha by this combination of UVB with IL-1alpha is mediated through increased TNF-alpha gene transcription. We investigated the molecular mechanism for UVB-induction of the TNF-alpha gene with a series of TNF-alpha promoter constructs, ranging from 1.2 kbp (from -1179 to +1 with respect to the TNF-alpha transcription initiation site) down to 0.1 kbp (-109 to +1), each driving expression of a CAT reporter. Our results showed a persistent nine to tenfold increase of CAT activity in all TNF-alpha promoter/reporter constructs in response to UVB (30 mJ/cm(2)) exposure. These results indicate the presence of UVB-responsive cis-element(s) located between -109 and +1 of the TNF-alpha promoter, a region that contains a putative AP-1 site and a putative NFkB site. UVB-induction was abolished when the TNF-alpha promoter was mutated by one base pair at the AP-1 binding site. Cells treated with SP600125, an AP-1 inhibitor that inhibits JNK (c-Jun N-terminal kinase), also showed suppression of the 0.1 kbp TNF-alpha promoter/reporter construct. The authentic endogenous gene in untransfected cells was also blocked by the inhibitor. Electrophoretic Mobility Shift Assay indicated new complexes from UVB-treated nuclear extracts and anti-phospho-c-Jun, a regulatory component of the AP-1 transcription factor, creating a supershift indicating increased phosphorylation of c-Jun and hence higher AP-1 activity. Keratinocyte-derived TNF-alpha is a component of the early induction phase of the inflammatory cascade.

Centrosome overduplication promotes mitotic abnormalities, invasion and tumorigenesis. Cells regulate the number of centrosomes by limiting centriole duplication to once per cell cycle. The orthogonal orientation between a mother and a daughter centriole, established at the time of centriole duplication, is thought to block further duplication of the mother centriole. Loss of orthogonal orientation (disengagement) between two centrioles during anaphase is considered a licensing event for the next round of centriole duplication. Disengagement requires the activity of Polo-like kinase 1 (Plk1), but how Plk1 drives this process is not clear. Here we employ correlative live/electron microscopy and demonstrate that Plk1 induces maturation and distancing of the daughter centriole, allowing reduplication of the mother centriole even if the original daughter centriole is still orthogonal to it. We find that mother centrioles can undergo reduplication when original daughter centrioles are only ∼80 nm apart, which is the distance centrioles normally reach during prophase.

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Endothelial cells (ECs) are quiescent in normal blood vessels, but undergo rapid bursts of proliferation after vascular injury, hypoxia or induced by powerful angiogenic cytokines like fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). Deregulated proliferation of ECs facilitates angiogenic processes and promotes tumor growth. In dividing cells, cell cycle-associated protein kinases, which are referred as cyclin-dependent kinases (cdks), regulate proliferation, differentiation, senescence, and apoptosis. Cyclin-dependent kinase-5 (cdk5) is expressed in neuronal cells and plays an important role in neurite outgrowth, of neuronal migration and neurogenesis, its functions in non-neuronal cells are unclear. Here, we show for the first time that the cdk5 is expressed at high levels in proliferating bovine aortic endothelial (BAE) cells, by contrast insignificant low levels of cdk5 expression in quiescent BAE cells. In addition, bFGF up-regulates cdk5 expression in a dose-dependent fashion. Interestingly, temporal expression data suggests that cdk5 expression is very low between 24-48 h, but high level of cdk5 expression was detected during 60-72 h. This later time corresponds to the time of completion of one cell cycle (doubling of cell population) of BAE cell culture. Angiostatin (AS), a powerful inhibitor of angiogenesis inhibits ECs proliferation in dose-dependent manner with concomitant down-regulation of cdk5 expression. The role of cdk5 in ECs, proliferation and apoptosis was confirmed by selective inhibition of cdk5 expression by the purine derivative roscovitine, which inhibits bFGF-stimulated BAE cells proliferation and induces apoptosis in dose-specific manner. By contrast, the roscovitine analog olomoucine, which is a specific inhibitor of cdk4, but not of cdk5 failed to affect ECs proliferation and apoptosis. These data suggest for the first time that neuron specific protein cdk5 may have significant role in the regulation of ECs proliferation, apoptosis, and angiogenesis and extends beyond its role in neurogenesis.