The notion of a unified Japanese national language was an androcentric language ideology created during the period of Japanese nation-state building in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Its association with masculinity, however, was accomplished without being explicitly stated, rendering the national language an unmarked, hegemonic ideology for the entire nation. The implicit masculinization of the national language was constructed in the gendered dispositions between language ideologies. Language ideologies in the period were gendered on three levels, “national language” vs. “feminine speech,” “schoolboy speech” vs. “schoolgirl speech,” and “masculine features” vs. “feminine features,” constructing the strong ties among masculinity, national language, and specific linguistic features. The masculine, unmarked status of the “national language” was negatively created by its asymmetrical relationship with ideologies concerning feminine, marked, and marginalized speech styles or linguistics forms. The asymmetrical disposition of gendered language ideologies formed iconic representations of female and male citizens. Standardization often involves both the construction and marginalization of feminine language varieties, which symbolically invent female citizens as the Inside Other, enabling a highly integrated construction of male citizenship.
An order-disorder behavior of Li and Ni in LiNi 0.5 Mn 0.5 O 2 was investigated by means of the ion-exchange preparation and the high-temperature X-ray diffraction measurement using synchrotron radiation. Rietveld refinements at room temperature showed that the occupancy of Ni at the Li site prepared by ion-exchange is less than those by co-precipitation and it increases with an increase in temperature and time for the ion-exchange reaction. In addition, it was found that by high-temperature XRD measurements an order-disorder transition occurs at around 700 K for the sample prepared by the ion-exchange. Further, we have confirmed that an optimum ion distribution in LiNi 0.5 Mn 0.5 O 2 exists to show superior electrochemical performance as a positive electrode for Li-ion batteries. These results demonstrate a close relation between crystal structure and electrochemical properties for LiNi 0.5 Mn 0.5 O 2 which is a member of Li 2 MnO 3 -based materials. It is the first report that presents an order-disorder transition of LiNi 0.5 Mn 0.5 O 2 at elevated temperatures, on the basis of the experimental results.
This paper illustrates the powerful role of translation in creating a sociolinguistic style. Through a quantitative survey of Japanese native speakers and a qualitative analysis of translated speech in an imported TV show and its Japanese parody, the study shows that Japanese translation practices have invented and preserved a widely recognised Japanese style associated with non-Japanese men. The study demonstrates that the style is linked with an image of non-Japanese young men characterised by cool informality; that it is marked by the use of linguistic features not commonly used among native speakers; and that it can be used to enregister a negative stereotype of non-Japanese masculinity, which serves to legitimate a polite, formal, Japanese normative masculinity. The findings suggest that translation is a process in which dominant ideologies of the target-language culture can be reinforced through the voices and bodies of nonnatives.
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