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The mechanisms by which cancer evolves and persists in natural systems have been difficult to ascertain. In the Xiphophorus melanoma model, a functional oncogene (Xiphophorus melanoma receptor kinase Xmrk) has been maintained for several million years despite being deleterious and in an extremely unstable genomic region. Melanomas in Xiphophorus spp. fishes (platyfishes and swordtails) have been investigated since the 1920s, and, yet, positive selection that could explain the maintenance of Xmrk has not been found. Here, we show that Xiphophorus cortezi females from two populations prefer males with the spotted caudal (Sc) melanin pattern, which is associated with the presence of the Xmrk oncogene and serves as the site of melanoma formation within this species. Moreover, X. cortezi females prefer males with an enhanced Sc to males with a reduced Sc pattern. RT-PCR analysis confirms tissue-specific Xmrk expression within the Sc pattern in X. cortezi. Because of the association of Xmrk with the Sc pigment pattern and the fact that melanoma formation augments this visual signal, sexual selection appears to be maintaining this oncogene because of a mating preference for Sc, as well as the exaggeration of this male trait. At the individual level, decreases in viability and fecundity because of Xmrk and subsequent melanoma formation may be mitigated via increases in mate acquisition. At the population level, maintenance of this oncogene appears to be under frequency dependent selection, as we detected female preference for males without Sc in a third population that had higher frequencies of Sc in females.cancer ͉ evolution ͉ sexual selection ͉ Xiphophorus ͉ Xmrk

The evolution of trichromatic color vision in primates may improve foraging performance as well as intraspecific communication; however, the context in which color vision initially evolved is unknown. We statistically examined the hypothesis that trichromatic color vision in primates represents a preexisting bias for the evolution of red coloration (pelage and/or skin) through sexual selection. Our analyses show that trichromatic color vision evolved before red pelage and red skin, as well as before gregarious mating systems that would promote sexual selection for visual traits and other forms of intraspecific communication via red traits. We also determined that both red pelage and red skin were more likely to evolve in the presence of color vision and mating systems that promote sexual selection. These results provide statistical support for the hypothesis that trichromatic color vision in primates evolved in a context other than intraspecific communication with red traits, most likely foraging performance, but, once evolved, represented a preexisting bias that promoted the evolution of red traits through sexual selection.

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