Introduction The increasing prevalence of waterpipe tobacco smoking (WTS) and its detrimental effects on memory function have been reported. This study was conducted to investigate the effect of moderate-intensity endurance exercise on the detrimental effects of WTS on learning and spatial memory in rats. Methods Animals were divided into: control group (CTL), the exercise group (Ex) which trained for 8 weeks, the waterpipe tobacco smoking group (Wp) exposed to smoke inhalation (30 min per day, 5 days each week, for 8 weeks), and the group that did exercise training and received waterpipe smoke together (Ex + Wp). Thereafter, learning and spatial memory were assessed by Morris water maze test and hippocampal molecular measurements were done. Results Waterpipe smoke significantly impaired learning and spatial memory, decreased expression of neurotrophic factors IGF-1 and BDNF (P<0.01 and P<0.05 vs. CTL group, respectively), increased BAX /BCL-2 ratio (P<0.001 vs. CTL group) in hippocampal tissue, and increased the percent of damaged neurons in the hippocampal CA1 area (P<0.05 vs. CTL group). Combination of exercise training with WTS prevented learning and spatial memory disturbances and recovered expression of neurotrophic factors IGF-1 (P<0.05 vs. Wp group), decreased BAX/ BCL-2 ratio (P<0.001 vs. Wp group), and reduced percentage of damaged neurons (P<0.05 vs. Wp group). Conclusion Findings suggest that moderate-intensity endurance exercise training can ameliorate learning and memory impairment caused by waterpipe smoke in rats. This effect partly results from increasing the expression of neurotrophic factors BDNF and IGF-1 and correcting pro/anti-apoptotic proteins balance in the hippocampal tissue. Implications Popularity of waterpipe tobacco smoking especially in youth is increasing. We assessed the effect of hookah smoke with/without exercise on learning and memory. Hookah smoke leads to CA1-neural injury and impairs learning and memory in rats. A combination of exercise training with hookah smoke attenuates these complications. This positive effect of exercise is partially mediated by the balancing of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and Insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) and also the BAX / BCL-2 ratio, a significant predictor of cell susceptibility to apoptosis. Extrapolation of these positive findings to humans needs complementary studies.

A hypothesis was tested that quantitative feed restriction affects the reproductive performance and offspring sex ratio of female Chukar breeder partridges. A total of 160 2.5‐year‐old male and female partridges were randomly allotted to four treatment groups. The birds in the control group were fed ad libitum, whereas those in treatments G95, G90, and G85 received 26.1, 24.7, and 23.3 g of feed per bird/day to provide 95%, 90%, and 85% of ad libitum feeding level, respectively. The reproductive performances of female Chukar partridges including egg production, egg quality, fertility rate, duration of fertility, hatchability, chick quality, mortality rate, and offspring sex ratio (using a PCR procedure) were investigated. Feed restriction of all levels decreased the body weight and egg production compared with the ad libitum birds; however, restricted feeding had no significant effect on the egg quality traits. Non‐significant effects of treatment on fertility and hatchability rate were found. The restricted feeding reduced the duration of fertility. Furthermore, maternal restricted feeding resulted in decreased chick weights. The results of this study showed that embryonic mortality was not affected by the restricted feeding of Chukar breeder partridges. Interestingly, restricted feeding was associated with a decreased proportion of male offspring. Overall, body weight, egg production, duration of fertility, progeny chick weight, and sex ratio were responsive to restricted feeding where their changes make the restricted feeding regimens to not be practically recommended in breeder partridge production. These results are in contrast to the conventional restricted feeding program implemented in broiler breeder industry.

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