We estimate that Canadian women working full time are 1.8 percentage points less likely to be promoted, receive fewer promotions, and experience 2.8 percent less wage growth following promotions than similar men. Significant “family gaps” exist among women. Women without children are less likely to have been promoted than similar men but experience similar wage growth following promotions, while women with children are as likely to have been promoted but experience less wage growth following promotions. Weekly hours and overtime hours explain significant fractions of these gender gaps. Though not precisely estimated, gender gaps in promotions also exist among part‐time workers.
I use Canadian linked employer‐employee data to examine whether women face a glass ceiling in the labour market. I also measure the extent to which the glass ceiling comes about because women are segregated into lower‐paying firms, or because they are segregated into lower‐paying jobs within firms. I find clear evidence that women experience a glass ceiling that is driven by their disproportionate sorting across firm types (glass doors) rather than within firms. I find no evidence that these results are supply‐driven. However, my results are consistent with predictions of an efficiency wage model where high‐paying firms discriminate against females.
We examine the role of between-and within-firm mobility in the early-career outcomes of immigrant men. Among Canadian workers with less than 10 years of potential experience, we find that visible minority immigrants were significantly less likely to have been promoted with their initial employers than similar white natives but were just as likely to have moved to new employers over the course of a year between interviews. White immigrants, on the other hand, were just as likely to be promoted as white natives but much more likely to move to new employers-suggesting that they enjoyed more overall mobility than white natives and other immigrants. We present tentative evidence linking these mobility patterns to differences in wage growth and occupational change between immigrants and natives. Overall, our findings suggest that the between-and within-firm mobility of white immigrants may play an important role in their relative economic success in Canada, while adding to growing evidence that visible minority immigrants experience frictions in the labor market that hinder their mobility and thus their economic prospects. JEL Classification: J61, J71
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