The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a scientific technique in molecular biology to amplify a single or a few copies of a piece of DNA across several orders of magnitude, generating thousands to millions of copies of a particular DNA sequence. PCR is now a common and often indispensable technique used in medical and biological research labs for a variety of applications. There are three major steps involved in the PCR technique: denaturation, annealing, and extension. PCR is useful in the investigation and diagnosis of a growing number of diseases. Qualitative PCR can be used to detect not only human genes but also genes of bacteria and viruses. PCR is also used in forensics laboratories and is especially useful because only a tiny amount of original DNA is required. PCR can identify genes that have been implicated in the development of cancer. Molecular cloning has benefited from the emergence of PCR as a technique. The present paper is an attempt to review basics of PCR.
Zinc is an essential element whose significance to health is increasingly appreciated. In 1961 essentiality of zinc for humans was recognized. A systematic literature search was done to identify relevant studies investigating the role of zinc in human health. This review concerns the importance of zinc in health and the consequences of its deficiency. Zinc deficiency leads to complications of pregnancy and childbirth, low birth weight and poor growth in childhood, reduced immunocompetence, and increased infectious disease morbidity. Pregnant women with zinc deficiency are at risk of premature labour and miscarriages, inefficient labour and delivery, stillbirths, lower mental ability of the child, retarded foetal growth and low immunity of both mother and baby. Zinc can reduce the duration, severity and incidence of diarrhoea in children. Zinc deficiency was indicated as a risk factor for immune deficiency and susceptibility to infection in the elderly. Zinc is used in preventive trials and treatment of diarrhoea, pneumonia, common cold, respiratory infections and malaria. Sufficient zinc is essential in maintaining immune system function. Supplementation of zinc and with other micronutrients may be beneficial during periods of greatest vulnerability such as early childhood, pregnancy and elderly. Ensuring adequate levels of zinc intake should be a key component in efforts to reduce illness.
Inter-subject variability in the dimensions of cricoid cartilages was observed. The large difference in almost all sizes and shapes of the cricoid cartilage makes it difficult to standardise the rigid stents used in these organs. Endotracheal tubes of the appropriate size should therefore be based on the measurements of individual patients. Clinicians should therefore be aware of morphological variations as they are of fundamental clinical importance.
Background: Plantaris is the largest muscle in mammals other than primates. Plantaris muscle has been a subject of much confusion and Evolutionists have speculated on its phylogenetic significance, as a vestigial organ, while surgeons have removed it 'useless vestige' to employ its tendon as a spare part for the surgical repair. In humans it is reduced greatly in size, power, and function and may even be absent. Aim: With this background the aim of the present work is to study morphology, describe the observed variations of the Plantaris muscle, and to discuss the functional significance of Plantaris muscle. Methodology: For the present work 84 limbs available in the department of Anatomy were dissected. The posterior aspect of the knee was dissected using standard surgical equipment and dissection techniques. The Plantaris muscle was isolated and length of fleshy belly and tendon were measured. Any variations in origin, insertion and size were recorded. Result: Variation in insertion of the Plantaris has observed like insertion along medial margin of tendocalcaneus on to calcaneus, in front of tendocalcaneus on to calcaneus, fused to tendocalcaneus and insertion of the Plantaris on deep fascia of leg at the level of ankle. Other variations noted were two bellies of the Plantaris one from lateral supracondylar ridge and other from deep surface of Gastrocnemius, two heads of Plantaris: Both bellies were fused in the lower part producing bipennate arrangement, thin & thick belly of the Plantaris muscle. Variations also observed in relation to origin that the muscle is originating from deep surface of lateral head of Gastrocnemius & in other case origin from capsule. Bicipital Plantaris was seen where one head was originating from capsule of knee joint and other from lateral condyle. Conclusion: In order to avoid any inadvertent injury during surgical operations, variation of the Plantaris must be borne in mind. Awareness of the insertion pattern of the Plantaris tendon is also important for clinicians in the diagnosis of muscle tears and for surgeons performing reconstructive procedures. Considering the above facts, the existence and importance of the Plantaris muscle cannot be undermined.
The larynx is essentially a cartilaginous tube that connects inferiorly to the respiratory system and superiorly to the vocal tract and oral cavity. A phonatory larynx is present in many animals and is used for communication between members of the same species. [1] Morphometrical evaluation of the larynx has always been interesting for both morphologists and the physicians. Dimensions of the larynx should be known for the procedures, such as intubation, stenting, cricothyroidotomy and for transplantation. From embryologic, anatomic, ABSTRACT Background: Knowledge of the size and proportions of the human larynx is essential for the diagnosis and treatment of laryngeal disorders. Objective of the present cadaveric study was to study dimensions of larynx, various laryngeal folds and laryngeal cavity of adult human larynx in the western Indian population. Materials and Methods: Sagittal section of the head and neck region was taken from the cadaver. Larynx was separated from tongue from the level of hyoid bone to 3 rd tracheal ring. The measurements of intact and split larynx were taken with the help of digital vernier caliper, thread, and scale. Data was analyzed using software StatistiXL. For each of the parameters, the mean, standard deviation (S.D.), and range was calculated. Z test was used to test the signifi cance of difference between the two mean. Results: Height of larynx from fl oor of thyroid notch to lower margin of cricoid cartilage was 32.42 ± 3.41 mm. Height of larynx from upper border of hyoid to lower border of cricoid. (L2) was 54.39 ± 6.04 mm. Height of larynx from tip of epiglottis to lower margin of cricoid cartilage was 57.13 ± 7.32 mm. Total height of laryngeal cavity was 61.51 ± 6.84 mm. Bilateral symmetry was noted in the size of vocal and vestibular folds length. Conclusion: There was wide individual variation in the dimensions of the most of the parameters in the selected population. Bilateral asymmetry, though present in majority of specimens, was insignifi cant. Morphometrical data of the larynx may be very useful in otorhinolaryngology, laryngeal microsurgery, and evaluation of results of diagnostic techniques. These parameters can be helpful in evaluation of the damage and proper repair of the larynx.The journal issue has a unique new feature for reaching to the journal's website without typing a single letter. Each article on its first page has a "Quick Response Code". Using any mobile or other hand-held device with camera and GPRS/other internet source, one can reach to the full text of that particular article on the journal's website. Start a QR-code reading software (see list of free applications from http://tinyurl.com/ yzlh2tc) and point the camera to the QR-code printed in the journal. It will automatically take you to the HTML full text of that article. One can also use a desktop or laptop with web camera for similar functionality. See
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